|
|
|
JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN VOL. 46 Xo. 542 FEBRUARY 1 9 4 5 PAGES 2 5 ^ 8 JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN CAROL H. WOODWARD, Editor L I V I N G M O N U M E N TS FOR ALL OUR BOYS By Millicent Easter Marine In memory of me, please don't erect A dreary stone that would reflect— No thought of joy or living things, Or hope, for which the whole world 6ings. I ask that you go plant a tree To cast a shadow, cool, for me. A tree to bless the weary earth, Or any monument of vital worth! Soldier In haunting memory, on marble cold, I want no story of my valor told. Forlorn and desolate, they stand for years, Despair they bring, and lonely tears. Instead, I beg you plan a place— A playground— where children race, Where laughter rings, and children sing, And mothers, there, their babies bring. Sailor I want a woodland— dark and deep— Where ferns, like sea- weed shadows creep, A little lake— a bathing beach— A happy place— in easy reach. For city children, denied the joy That I once knew, as d. bare- foot boy. Or ( of man- made ice) a skating rink— Are among the worth- while things, I think. Flyer For all the boys— on sea or land— For all the Flyers— who victory planned— From the Spirit World— We unite our pleas— For playgrounds— pools— and glorious trees! No futile piles of stone to mar The landscape view, both near and far! Dead monuments are but idle toys— Give living things for our noble boys! ( Reprinted by courtesy of The Matrix) TABLE OF CONTENTS February 194? PRIMULA OBCONICA, from the February Members' Day Exhibit Cover photograph by Elmer N. Mitchell LONGEVITY OF SEEDS CURRENT LITERATURE 44 William Crocker 26 NOTES, NEWS, AND COMMENT 44 EPIPHYTIC ORCHIDS OF FLORIDA RED CROSS EXHIBIT 47 Alex D. Hawkes 38 TEACHERS' COURSE 48 The Journal is published monthly by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York 58, N. Y. Printed in U. S. A. Entered at the Post Office in New York. N. Y., as second- class matter. Annual subscription $ 1.00. Single copies 15 cents. Free to members of the Garden. JOURNAL 0/ THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN VOL. 46 FEBRUARY 1945 No. 542 S E E D S OF A N T I Q U I TY O TORIES of wheat that has sprouted after centuries of burial in the dark' ^ ness of an ancient Egyptian tomb and of peas that have been grown in gardens recently from seeds that had been stored beside a mummy long before the Christian era are perennially appearing in print. In the past year par-ticularly several accounts have been published of peas which had been taken directly from a container sealed within the tomb of Tut- ankh- amen 3,300 years ago, and which germinated and grew. No one today is a greater authority of the length of time that seeds may be expected to live than William Crocker, Director of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Inc., in Yonkers. To answer the many questions that have been sent to the New York Botanical Garden lately regarding the veracity of these repeated tales, Dr. Crocker has generously consented to write the accompanying article on the life- span of seeds, presenting the facts as they have been revealed through his own research and that of others here and abroad. It will be seen very shortly that wheat that has been stored ten years will germinate almost 100 per cent; but if 15 years are added to this period, the rate of germination is reduced to a negligible figure. A long way, this, from the hundreds, possibly thousands, of years of storage in Egyptian tombs! Seeds of the same kind of lotus ( H. elumbium) that was cultivated in the waters of the Nile have germinated after they have been in storage 250 years, and buried seeds of lotus from a lake bed in Manchuria, where they had lain for perhaps two to four hundred years, have also sprouted successfully. Members of the Pea family, which, like the lotus, are apt to have hard, impervious seed- coats, also rank among the seeds of long life duration. Some of these have been found to be viable after about 150 years and might be 25 26 viable even longer. But scientific tests remain to be made on seed 500, 1,000, and 3,000 years old. Dr. Crocker's statements should put an end to future speculation on mummy wheat, at least, if not on the garden peas from Tut- ankh- amen's tomb; but, as others have also predicted, these tales will without doubt be perpetually revived.— C. H. W. Longevity of Seeds1 By William Crocker PROFESSOR EWART, in his booklet " On the Longevity of Seeds," 1908, says in part: " . . . such fables as the supposed germination of mummy wheat have long since been exploded." He was evidently too optimistic about the ease of disposing permanently of the mummy wheat fable, for it has been repeatedly revived and exploded since 1908 and will probably recurrently revive and be exploded in the future. Seeds of farm and garden plants are not long- lived. It is rare except under very special storage conditions that any seeds of these crops will remain viable more than 25 years. Seeds of Short Life Duration Seeds of a number of species of plants remain alive for relatively short periods ( days, weeks, or months) when exposed to drying or other detrimental factors of the atmosphere. Among such seeds are spring-fruiting maples of this region, Indian or wild rice, chestnuts, hickory nuts, walnuts and other nuts, acorns, poplar, willow, citrus, sugar cane, Hevea, elm, and others. In the river maple ( Acer saccharimun) and Indian rice ( Zizania aquatica) the main and perhaps the sole injurious effect of the air is drying. In the former the seeds bear about 58 per cent water when they fall from the tree and are killed when the water falls to 30 to 34 per cent, regardless of speed and temperature of drying. In nature, the seeds fall with the radical pointing downward and many germinate immediately, thus avoiding drying. These seeds retained full vitality for 102 days when, stored at 0° C. in a way to prevent drying and accumulation of carbon dioxide. This was the duration of the experiment so there is little doubt 1 Practically all facts and conclusions in this paper are based on two papers ( 2, 3) written on this subject by the author: " Life- Span of Seeds" in the Botanical Review 4: 235- 274, 1938, and a chapter, " Life Span of Seeds," in Book of Boyce Thompson Institute, to be published soon. Both of these papers are fully documented, consequently few additional citations are called for in this article. For these few citations, referred to by numbers in parenthesis, see the end of the article. 27 that they will retain their vitality much longer than this under these conditions. Indian rice stored in air also seems to be killed by drying. In nature the seeds generally fall in water and remain in the cold water until spring, when they germinate. These seeds can be stored in water at or a little above the freezing point until spring. In this condition they after- ripen as well as retain their vitality and are ready to grow in the spring. Willow seeds endure thorough drying if the drying occurs rapidly and at a low temperature as is the case when they are sealed with a desiccating agent and placed in an ice- chest. Poplar seeds retain their vitality for 22 months if sealed in a vacuum and stored at a low temperature. American elm seeds lose their vitality almost completely in 6 months in open air, but retain full vitality for more than 5 years when kept in sealed storage at 5° to - 5° C. with a water content of 2 to 7 per cent. The two articles on life span of seeds on which this paper is based describe experiments on several other short- lived seeds showing the atmospheric factors that kill the seeds and the conditions necessary for prolonging the lives of the seeds. Seeds of Medium Life Duration Seeds of most of our farm and vegetable garden plants still retain a low percentage of viability after a few to possibly as much as 25 years in some cases when stored in the manner of common practice. Vilmorin, the well known seed and horticultural firm of France, kept many records of the life span of seeds. According to these records, oats and barley had an average life of 3 years and timothy and flax 2 years, and the extreme limit of seeds were maize 4 years, lettuce 9 years, onion 7 years, crucifers ( cabbage, turnips, rape, and radish) 10 years, and cucurbits ( watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, etc.) and beets 10- f- years. The climate of France is evidently unfavorable for retention of viability of seeds, for the records of the life span of the same kinds of seeds by other workers is much greater than the Vilmorin records. Robertson and Lute ( 5) of Colorado determined the percentage germination of several varieties of wheat, barley, oats. Rosen rye. Wisconsin Black soybean, and one variety of corn after various years of storage in the Colorado climate. The following shows the percentage germination after the periods of storage mentioned: varieties of wheat 89.8 to 98.4 per cent; varieties of barley 68.1 to 100 per cent; and varieties of oats 81.8 to 91.9 per cent ( all after 10 years of storage) ; rye 52 per cent after 9 years of storage; soybeans 48.1 per cent after 8 years; Black Amber sorghum 97.9 per cent after 6 years; and corn 79 per cent after 9 years. At the beginning all the seeds gave 100 per cent germination except corn, which gave 92 per cent. 28 Dillman and Toole found that flax stored in the dry climate of Mandan, N. D., gave 58 per cent germination after 18 years of storage, and Goff of Geneva, N. Y., found that rutabaga gave 50 per cent germination and muskmelon 56 per cent after 14 years of storage; cucumber 14 per cent after 19 years; beet 24 per cent after 15 years; and tomato 56 per cent after 16 years. Sifton of Ottawa, Canada, got 2 per cent germination for 17- year- old wheat, 41 per- cent for 19- year oats, 10 per cent for 12- year timothy; Karper and Jones ( Texas) got 4 per cent for 18- year and 0.4 per cent for 19- year- old sorghum. Finally, Percival of England got 16 per cent germination in 25- year- old wheat that was especially dried and sealed in a bottle. All of the workers show that the life span given by Vilmorin is too short for the same seeds stored in more favorable climates, but none of them indicate that the life span is likely to exceed greatly 25 years for ordinary storage. Sifton's ( 6) results are especially significant on the last point, for his curves show that once the vitality drops 10 to 20 per cent the fall is rapid thereafter. Oats may be a partial exception, for the vitality in oats had not dropped 20 per cent until after more than 15 years and still gave 40 per cent germination after 19 years. In Sifton's curves there is a tendency for the curves to flatten out somewhat again after the viability reaches a low value, indicating that there are a few seeds in each batch that are rather persistent. Still, the mummy wheat fable gets no support from these data. Good Storage Conditions Increase Greatly the Life Span of Seeds Table I shows how much improved but not optimum storage conditions lengthen the vitality of relatively short- lived delphinium seeds. These seeds were kept in a heated laboratory from harvest until December, when they were put into storage. Judging from our records of the water content of various kinds of seeds in the laboratory during each month of the year and from the fact that these seeds are fatty, they probably bore about 6 per cent water when put into storage. The annual delphinium seeds stored open in the laboratory fell continuously in percentage germination with duration of storage and were all dead after 46 months. In these, of course, both the water content and the temperature fluctuated with the season. Contrast with these the seeds sealed and stored at 8° and 5° C. These had not fallen in percentage germination after 143 months and still gave more than half of the original germination after 193 months, or more than 16 years of storage. These seeds were kept constant both as to moisture and temperature. They gave about the same percentage germination after 193 months of storage as those open in the laboratory gave after 29 TABLE I Viability of Delphinium Seeds Stored under Various Conditions Storage Germination percentages after Seed conditions months of storage 11 22 46 69 111 123 143 168 193 Annual, 72% Open room temp. 57 44 0 0 — — — — — germinated when Sealed room temp. 75 80 50 15 0 0 — — stored Open 8° C* 50 41 31 5 0 0 — — — Sealed 8° C* 70 67 66 80 76 71 71 48 43 Perennial, 43% Open room temp. 11 0 0 — — — — — germinated when Sealed room temp. 35 21 0 0 — — — ��� stored Open - 15° C.** 44 45 37 27 8 6 8 3 — Sealed - 15° C.* » 42 53 57 44 49 50 45 45 33 * After 7 years tlie temperature was changed to 5° C. ** After 7 years the temperature was changed to - 5° C. 22 months. Those sealed at room temperature and those stored open at 8° and 5° C. were intermediate in life span. The first had constant moisture with higher and fluctuating temperature and the latter constant temperature with changing moisture content. For the perennial delphinium seeds, open and sealed storage at room temperature were both unfavorable with the former more so. Sealed storage at - 15° and - 5° C. was very favorable while open storage at sub-freezing temperatures was considerably less favorable. In the 193 months of storage sealed at the low temperature these seeds had lost only one-third of their original germination capacity. Both the annual and perennial seeds were stored at the 8° and 5° C. and at the - 15° and - 5° C. combinations. The annuals retained their viability best at 8° and 5° C, and the perennials best at - 15° and - 5°. Probably with more thorough drying the lower temperature would also have been more favorable for the annuals since freezing does not generally injure seeds that are dried sufficiently. Judging from this table, sealed storage at low temperature in contrast to open storage at room temperature lengthened the life span of annual delphinium seeds about 9- fold and of perennial delphinium seeds more than 17- fold. If even such short- lived seeds as delphinium were stored under optimum conditions, it might take a lifetime to watch over their slow complete demise. Extensive seed storage studies by investigators at this laboratory and by many investigators elsewhere show that for seeds that endure considerable artificial desiccation there are three factors that increase their longevity: low and constant moisture content, low temperatures, and absence of oxygen. Changing one of these factors modifies the effect of the other two; seeds with low constant moisture content are less injured by high or low temperatures or oxygen pressure than those with high moisture. 30 Different kinds of seeds vary greatly in the degree of desiccation they will endure without injury; we have seen above that certain seeds are killed by very moderate drying, certain pines are injured if dried much below 3 per cent moisture, while radish seeds are apparently not injured by complete withdrawal of the water. It would be of value to know the lowest water content to which one could dry each kind of commercial seed without injury, for that is probably the best water content for storage of any particular kind of seed. It would also be fine to know the optimum temperature for storing of each sort of seed when it was dried to the optimum moisture content for storage. It may be that absolute zero is the optimum temperature for storage of seeds that stand thorough desiccation. We do know that seeds that stand thorough desiccation keep well and probably best in total absence of oxygen. It is interesting to speculate how long the last seed of batches of oats, rutabaga, cucumber, beet, or tomato would stay alive if stored at the optimum constant water content and optimum temperature in absence of oxygen. No doubt the period would be long. Seeds of Long Life Duration There are several records of seeds that remained alive after being kept in seed cupboards or herbaria for a long time. The most interesting record of this sort is that of Becquerel because of the great life duration of some of the seeds he studied. He had access to a batch of old seeds in a storage room in the National Museum of Paris. The time of collection of these seeds varied from 1819 to 1853. He ran germination tests on these seeds in 1906 and again in 1934. For the 1934 test, Humbert and Merman furnished him about 20 seeds of Cassia multijuga which were collected in 1776. These seeds were all hard- coated, so they demanded special treatment. They were sterilized, the coats broken, and put to germinate in tubes TABLE II Becquerel's Record of Old Seeds Date Seeds grow- Seeds grozv- Determined Probable Macrobiotic species collected ing in 1906 ing in 1934 longez'ity longevity Mimosa gloincrala Forsk. 1853 5 out of 10 5 out of 10 81 years 221 years Melilotus Intra Gueld 1851 3 " " 10 0 " " 10 55 " — Astragalus massilieusis Lam. 1848 0 " " 10 1 " " 10 86 " 100 years Cytisus austriacus Linn. 1843 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 63 " — ± avatcra Psendo- olbia Dcsf. 1842 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 64 " — Dioclca pauciflora Rushy 1841 1 " " 10 2 " " 10 93 " 121 years Ervum Lens Linn. 1841 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 65 " — Trifolium arvense Linn. 1838 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 68 " — Leucaena Icucoccphala Linn. 1835 2 " " 10 3 " " 10 99 " 155 years Stachvs neltctifolia Dcsf. 1829 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 77 " — Cytisus biflorus L'Herit. 1822 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 84 " — Cassia bica/ tsularis Linn. 1819 3 " " 10 4 " " 10 115 " 199 years Cassia multijuga Rich. 1776 — 2 " " 2 158 " — 31 under sterile conditions at 28° C. The seed stock was considered so precious that only ten of each sort were used for the test. Of Cassia multijuga only two seeds were used. Table II shows the results obtained for the 13 kinds, showing germination in either the 1906 or the 1934 test. In the last column Becquerel estimates the probable life span of several of the seeds, based on the data for the two tests. All these seeds are Leguminosae, except those of Lavatera ( Malvaceae) and Stachys ( Labiatae). The seeds of Cassia multijuga germinated after 158 years of storage. This exceeds the former records of Robert Brown for Nelumbium speciosum2 from the British Museum, which were 150 years; also the records of Ewart for Goodia lotifolia and Hovea hetero-phylla, which were 105 years. Becquerel believes the long life span in all these seeds is made possible by impermeability of the coats, which prevents any exchange of gases or water between the embryo and endosperm and the outside atmosphere, and by the high degree of desiccation, 2 to 5 per cent moisture, and absence of oxygen in which the embryos exist within the hard coats. Later work shows that hard seeds of Albizzia julibrissiit in the British Museum ( 4) were alive after 149 years and seeds of Nelumbium ( Robert Brown's collection) after 250 years of storage. It is interesting that the seeds that remained alive so long in seed cupboards and herbaria had hard coats which give to the living parts of the seeds two conditions which we have mentioned as good storage conditions for long life span, namely, low constant moisture and low oxygen pressure. Perhaps neither of these was at the optimum and of course these seeds did not have the advantage of low constant temperatures. Life Span of Seeds in Soil There is little doubt of Ohga's claim of great age of the Nelumbo nucifera seeds excavated from a naturally drained lake bed in Manchuria. The seeds were buried about 1.5 meters deep in a layer of grav mud covered in turn by a layer of peat and a layer of loess. The eroding river which drained the lake has now cut a channel through the lake bed about 13 meters deep. Since there were no Nelumbo plants growing in the region, and the seeds were buried so deep, Ohga concludes that the seeds were from plants growing in the lake before it was drained. Judging from the rate at which the river is eroding its bed, the age of the trees growing on the land since drainage of the lake, and the records of a family that has been farming the drained lake bed for several generations, Ohga concludes , that the seeds have been buried for at least 120 years and more likely for 200 to 400 years. These seeds are hard- coated and those that were 2 Nelumbium speciosum and Nelumbo nucifera are synonyms, and both are synonymous with Nelumbium Nelumbo Karst. 32 excavated had not absorbed water. They gave 100 per cent germination when the coats were broken so the seeds could swell. Since these seeds did not swell naturally, the retention of vitality in the soil was not unlike that of hard seeds in herbaria and seed cupboards except for lower and more nearly constant temperature which was provided by deep burial. This condition would of course favor longevity. We noted above that Nelumbo seeds in the British Museum retained their viability for 250 years. On the other hand, the hard coats in moist soil are more subject to attack by bacteria and fungi. Indeed, Ohga noted that the epidermis and the outer portion of the palisade layer in these old seeds were eaten away. As soon as the corrosion reaches the " light line" of the palisade layer ( this is the inner limit of impermeability) these seeds swell, germinate, and the seedlings perish due to the deep burial. It is likely that this had been occurring with many of the seeds through the centuries so that only those with more resistant coats were left in the seed bed. Some seeds that absorb water remain in the soil intact and viable for many years. In 1879 Dr. Beal of East Lansing, Michigan, buried 20 sets of seeds as follows: 50 seeds each of 20 kinds of plants were mixed with sand and placed in pint bottles, and the 20 uncorked bottles were buried in sandy soil 20 inches deep with the mouths tilted downward to avoid TABLE HI BealV Buried Shells— Results of All Germination Tests to Date Plus Sign Indicates Germination 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th 30th 35th 40th 50th 60th Name of species yr. vr. yr. yr. yr. yr. vr. yr vr yr tested 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 1914 1920 1930 1940 Aiuaranthus retrofiexus Ambrosia elatior Brassica nigra Broinus seca/ inns Bursa Bitrsa- pastoris Erechtitcs hieracifolia Chamaesyee iiiacuhia Lepidium ; irginieum Agrostcimua Githago Authemis Cotula Mak- a rotundifolia Oenothera biennis Planfar/ o nuijor Polygonum Hydro piper Porhtlaca oleracea Rum ex crispus Chaetochloa lutesccns Alsinc media Trifolium rc/> ens Verbascum Thapsus Verbascum Blattaria + 0 0 0 + 0 0 4- 0 + 4- + 0 0 0 +++ 0 + 4- 0 + 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 4- 4- ? 4+- 0 •? + 0 + 0 + 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 ++ 4- + j _ 4- i-- 0 4- 4- 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 0 4- 4- 0 4- 4- 4- 0 4- 0 4- + 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 + 0 4- 0 4- 0 4- 4- 4- 4- 4- 0 0 + 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 0 ? 6 4- + + 0 0 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 ? 6 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 4- 4- 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 4- 0 4- 4- 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 33 TABLE IV Seeds Alive After 60 Years' Burial Number of Percentage of Name of plant individuals germination 1930 1940 1930 1940 Rumex crispus 26 2 52 4 Oenothera biennis 19 12 38 24 Verbascum Blattaria 31 34 62 68 Percentage of all seeds buried still germinating: 4.8%. filling with water. It was originally planned to take up a bottle every 5 years for vitality tests so that the experiment would extend over a period of 100 years. So many seeds were still alive at the 40- year period that it was decided to test the other 12 samples at 10- year periods, thus extending the experiment over a total period of 160 years. Table III shows the seeds some of which were alive at each period of test, and Table IV lists the three kinds of seeds that had lived 60 years in the soil, along with the percentage still intact and alive. In 1902 the U. S. D. A. buried many replicates of seeds of 107 different kinds of plants, wild and cultivated. The seeds were planted in soil in flower pots and triplicate pots buried at three different depths in the soil. The last report published was for the 20- year period and for that period the results confirm the findings of Beal for weed seeds. Seeds of many of the cultivated plants, such as cereals and vegetable garden plants, were dead before 20 years of burial with most of them dying within 1 year, probably due to lack of dormancy and prompt germination. A percentage of seeds of certain cultivated plants— timothy, Kentucky blue grass, clovers, beet, tobacco, celery, and black locust— were alive after 20 years' burial. Depth of burial had little effect on longevity. Seeds with Greater Longevity in Soil than in Air Storage As we have seen above, seeds of most cultivated plants remain intact and alive much longer in dry storage than in moist soil. According to the records, this is true of seeds of some wild plants. On the other hand, it has been shown for seeds of a number of wild plants that they live much longer in soil outside than they do in dry storage inside. Table V shows this relation for 13 different kinds of seeds. Recorded life span of these seeds in vseed cupboards is compared with the recorded life span in the buried seed experiments of Beal and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Very recent work by Kjaer confirms this conclusion. In 5- year tests he found that the seeds of the following retained their vitality in soil better than in dry storage: Polygonum tomentosum, 20 vs. 0 per cent; Thlaspi anvusc, 87 vs. 1 per cent; Vicia hirsuta, 50 vs. 5 per cent; Daucus carota, 34 TABLE V Comparative Life Span of Certain Seeds in Dry Storage and in Soil Life span in soil and per Life span in dry storage cent germination according Species of seeds according to Ezvart to Beal and U. S. D. A. Amaranthus graechaus 7 spp., less than 15 yrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 66% Apium graveolens Less than 10 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 10.5% Chenopodium album Less than 20 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 65.5% Datura Stramonium Less than 15 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 78% Nicotiana tabacum 6 spp., less than 10 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 56% Oenothera biennis Less than 15 yrs. Be^ l, 50 yrs., 38% ; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 87.5% Plantago major Less than 10 vrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 10%; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 83.5% Poa pratensis 5 spp., less than 12 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 18.5% Polygonum Hydropiper \ ,, , , ., fBeal, 50 yrs., 4% Polygonum persicaria f 15 s p p " less t h a n 15 y r s ' [ U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 55% Portulaca oleracca Less than 15 vrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 2%; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs. 38% Verbascum Blattaria Less than 15 yrs. Beal, 50 yrs., 62% Verbascum Thapsus Less than 15 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 92.5% 43 vs. 10 per cent; Plantago major, 30 vs. 0 per cent; Cirsium arvense, 55 vs. 0 per cent. He reports Dorph- Petersen's results with seeds of Sinapis arvensis buried 10 years 87 per cent germination, dry stored 21 per cent; buried 18 years 17 per cent, dry stored 0 per cent. Avery and Blakeslee ( 1) state that Datura seeds stored in the laboratory are all dead after 9 or 10 years but Datura seeds buried in the soil outside ( U. S. D. A. buried seeds) still show 97.5 per cent germination after 39 years. The fact that seeds of some wild plants remain in the soil for long periods in a dormant viable condition means that the soil is always well stocked with seeds which are capable of germination when the soil is disturbed. This assures the persistence of the species. It also makes the task of the farmer and gardener in fighting weeds difficult, for when the soil is once well stocked with seeds it takes years of cultivation for the complete germination and final destruction of the weeds. While the old imbibed seeds in the soil are of necessity dormant, or they would have germinated, the dormancy in the main is due to a rather delicate equilibrium that is overcome by exposure to light, by fluctuating temperatures of the top soil, or even by mechanical disturbance or better oxygen supply. Disturbing dormant weed seeds in soil starts them to germinate. Many of the seeds just mentioned as living longer in soil than in dry storage absorb water. Imbibed seeds of course respire so there is danger of exhaustion of stored foods. Barton, for seeds, and Denny, for gladiolus corms, have shown that in the soil these dormant organs curtail respiration greatly. This reduces the rate of exhaustion of stored foods and thus may enable them to live much longer. 35 Why Do Seeds in Storage Finally Die? We have seen that some seeds in air storage are killed by moderate desiccation. It is probable that many seeds in the soil that swell up and remain dormant die because the stored foods are used up in respiration. Several explanations have been offered for the final death of seeds in dry storage. Among these are exhaustion of stored foods or enzymes. These explanations are doubtful for foods are little exhausted in dry storage though they may be denatured to a degree and dry seeds are poor in enzymes— the enzymes are largely formed by the embryo or living tissue after germination starts. A number of other explanations have been offered. The one that seems most likely is that the delicate mitotic mechanism of the embryo cells degenerates so that normal cell division and growth can no longer occur. Avery and Blakeslee ( 1) noted that Datura seeds degenerate much faster in dry storage than in the soil. They also show a much higher mutation rate in dry storage. The changes in the nuclei that lead to mutations may be the changes that lead to death if they go far enough. If space permitted, other evidence could be furnished for this explanation of age- degeneration of seeds. Summary We have seen that some seeds live for only a few hours or days when exposed to the air, while others live for much more than a century under the same conditions. Cereals and seed of many other farm and garden plants do not live beyond 25 years in ordinary air storage. This disposes of the mummy wheat fable. The life span of seeds of medium life duration can be greatly lengthened by proper storage conditions. For longest life, seeds that will withstand drying should be dried to as low a water content as possible without injury and kept in sealed storage at a low temperature in absence of oxygen. Hard- coated seeds which do not permit an exchange of air or water with the atmosphere and bear little water have been known to live well over a century in seed closets— Nelumbium 250 years in a herbarium. Hard- coated seeds live in the soil for long periods or until the coats become pervious to water. Some weed seeds that swell readily remain in the soil dormant and viable for more than 60 years. A number of weeB seeds live much longer in the moist soil in nature than they do in dry storage. It has been suggested that age- degeneration of dry seeds is due to gradual degeneration of the nuclear mechanism which leads to mutation in the earlier stages and later to death of the seeds. • « -<£ » For references to the literature cited in this article, see page 48. ORCHIDS OF FLORIDA SOME OF THE EPIDENDRUMS AND OTHER EPIPHYTES Vanilla fjlanifolia / Brassia caudata*- 1 <"<• » - All illustrations used in this and the accompanying plate have en ta\ en from paintings made for Addisonia, where four . ve already appeared as Plates 214, 273, 437 and 607. ^ A& A - ^ B. tampense 38 The & piphytic Orchids of Florida By Alex D. Hawkes IN the Florida peninsula, more than a third of the native orchids live in the trees. They do not exist on trees as parasites, as many people think, but rather they perch there like strange and colorful birds and live as epiphytes, or plants upon plants. Instead of drawing their sustenance from the ground, as do the terrestrial or earth- dwelling orchids, these epiphytes simply sit on the trees and secure most of their nourish^ merit from the air and rain. Their thick, white, spongy roots fasten the plants securely to the tree and absorb minerals from the water which pours on them from above and from the debris which usually lodges near their bases. Epiphytic orchids have highly specialized organs and are able to exist for long periods under the most adverse conditions. Besides developing fleshy roots adapted to procuring water for the plant, orchids usually have thick leathery leaves capable of storing large amounts of liquid, thus enabling them to survive during prolonged dry seasons. Many of the epiphytic species, in addition, have specially thickened stems, called pseudo-bulbs, which also store water for the plant. Some of the tropical species grow attached to hard rocks, fully exposed to the blazing sun and torrential rains, and thus furnish an excellent example of the fact that these plants are epiphytes, not parasites. If these orchids were parasitic and therefore required the absorption of food from a living host, those which live on stones would certainly have long since died. Most of the orchids in tropical countries grow either in trees or on rocks as epiphytes. Florida, however, the most tropical state in the union, has only a scant 29 species of its orchid flora living in this way. The remaining 65% of the 84 native species are either terrestrials or saprophytes. Occasionally, a stray plant of the epiphytic group finds its way to a congenial spot on the ground and continues to thrive there, and some of the terrestrials get up into the trees, but these will be mentioned later in this paper. Most of the 14 genera of epiphytic orchids found in Florida are represented only by a single species, but Epidendruni, Oncidium. and Vanilla all have several different plants indigenous to the area. The first genus has a total of 10 native species, and is therefore the third largest group of Florida orchids, the first being the terrestrial genus Spiranthes, with 15 native species and varieties, and the second another ground- dwelling group, Habenaria. which has 12 Floridan representatives. The two most widely distributed species of Epidendruni in the state are the Florida butterfly orchid, E. tampense, and E. conopscum, which has 39 no widely used common name. On the mainland the butterfly orchid is restricted to this one state, but it occurs in more robust phases off the coast in the Bahamas and Cuba. Epidendruni conopseum, which is more northern in its distribution, is the only epiphytic orchid found outside of Florida in the entire country. Very common in the central and much of the northern part of the state, it has also been found in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. While looking for orchids in the jungles of central Florida, I have found specimens of this plant as much as five feet long and four feet wide, almost covering the trunks of huge old oak trees. When these plants are in flower, there are absolutely thousands of blossoms, and they perfume the jungle for some distance with their distinctive honey odor. Quite frequently these large plants are impossible to collect, because of the hordes of large ferocious ants which build their nests under the roots and rhizomes of the orchid. The insects protect the orchid from marauders and in turn receive shelter from the rain and sun. Since epiphytic orchids in general are lovers of the tropics, the majority of those that dwell naturally in Florida are to be found in the southern, warmer portion of the peninsula. In addition to the previously noted pair, the following species of Epidendruni are to be seen in the lower part of the state: E. anceps, E. Boothianum, E. coehlcatum var. triandrum ( which is found only in southern Florida and no place else in the world), E. difforme, E. nocturnum, E. pygmaeum, E. rigidum, and E. strobilif erum. These plants usually grow on large trees in rather shady woods, where they frequently form huge clusters, several species often being found intermingled. Many of them have beautiful and interesting flowers, and several, such as E. tampense, E. difforme, and E. nocturnum, emit a delightful perfume, especially at night. Very few people realize that the vanilla extract of the kitchen shelf is the product of an orchid, Vanilla planifolia, made by crushing the seed capsules after they have been cured. Florida is fortunate enough to have this interesting vanilla- producing species growing wild in the extreme southern tip of the peninsula, though it is very rare there. The plant forms a rather long fleshy vine which clambers over low shrubs and up trees in the swamps and jungles. In addition to the widely known commercial one, three other species of this genus are known from southern Florida. Vanilla Eggersii, V. phaeantha, and V. articulata have also been reported, but, except for V. Eggersii, they are all extremely rare. The rather large and very beautiful flowers of V. Eggersii last less than a single day. The genus Oncidium is also represented by four species in the Florida orchid flora: O. carthaginense, O. floridannm, 0. guttatum, and O. varicgatum. The second species is one of the few members of the Orchid family which is found only in Florida and not any place else. It is a 40 fairly showy plant, usually found growing in rich moist earth or on rotting logs, but sometimes on trees, expanding its medium- sized yellow and brown flowers on tall, arching spikes. Oncidium carlhaginense and 0. guttatum are both commonly known as " mule ears," because of the large, erect, leathery leaves. Both species bear very long, usually arching spikes of rather small brownish or purplish flowers which are so numerous as to make these two among the showiest of our native epiphytic orchids. For the average person it is frequently extremely difficult to believe that a certain insignificant weedy- looking plant is a member of the famed and exotic Orchid family. The two native species of the genus Campylocen-trum are particularly good examples of this class. These tiny orchids to the uninitiated certainly do not even resemble anything in the vegetable kingdom known to the ordinary flower grower, but would seem to make better bait for fish than plants worthy of cultivation. Both species consist of a tangled mass of fleshy greenish- grey roots sprawling over small twigs and branches of relatively smooth- barked trees. In C. porrectum there springs from the approximate center of this pile of Medusa- like roots a tiny irregular spike bearing two or three minute greenish flowers which even when in full bloom seem to be mere buds. If one looks at one of these wee blossoms under a lens, however, the " bud" resolves itself into a perfect little orchid of very interesting structure. The other Florida species in this fascinating and unusual genus is Campyloceutrum pachyrrhizuni. When measured side by side, the name is sometimes almost as long as the plant itself. The inflorescence is shorter than that of C. porrectum, although the plant itself is considerably larger, and bears a zigzag bunch of tinv. somewhat bell- shaped, green flowers. The remaining nine indigenous genera all consist of a solitary species in Florida, but all of them have several or many more species found outside of this area. Of these nine plants, one of the most interesting is the totally leafless Polyrrhiza Lindenii, a species which greatly resembles a large Campylocentrum in vegetative habit. In addition to being a leafless species, it bears the distinction of having the largest flowers of all the native orchids, including both epiphytes and terrestrials. These blossoms, which are green and white and very fragrant, are borne singly on long, jointed spikes which arise from the center of the cluster of roots. In large specimens the flowers measure up to nine inches long and about four inches across. They are of very peculiar structure and on first glance seem to belong to the animal rather than the vegetable kingdom. One of the commonest of all epiphytic orchids in many parts of southern Florida is Polystachya luteola. a medium- sized plant with branching spikes of very small, fragrant, yellowish- green flowers. This species is of particular interest to botanists because it has probably the largest distribution of any orchid. The plant ranges from southern Florida over most of FOUR OF FLORIDA'S TREE- DWELLING ORCHIDS 42 tropical America, and is also found in several localities in the eastern tropics, notably the Mascarene Islands, Ceylon, and the Philippines. Of all the native epiphytic orchid plants, Cyrtopodium punctatum attains the largest size. The pseudobulbs are massive and sometimes attain a length of three feet and a thickness of four inches. These huge bulbs earn for the plant two of its vernacular names of " cigar orchid" and " cow's-horn orchid," but the name of " big fish orchid" comes from the sharp points which remain attached to the bulbs when the leaves fall, and " bee-swarm orchid" refers to the inflorescence. The yellow flowers, spotted with red- brown, are rather large and are borne profusely on long branched scapes which reach a height of about three feet. This species usually grows in cypress swamps, which are often called " hammocks" here in Florida, where it frequently forms huge masses, generally growing near the tops of the trees. The Orchid family is divided into a great many groups which include genera and, in turn, species of fairly close relationship. Of these sections, one of the largest and most complex is the strictly neotropical sub- tribe Pleurothallidinae. In our Florida orchid flora two species of this group, representing two different genera, are very rarely found in the extreme southern part of the peninsula. Pleurothallis gelida, the commoner of the two, is a rather large plant bearing long arching racemes of tiny bell- shaped yellowish flowers. The racemes arise from the base of a single large fleshy paddle- shaped leaf at the top of a slender stem. The other native species of this group, Lcpanthopsis melanantha, is an exceedingly rare and very small plant with tiny red- purple flowers. It has been found mostly in the Big Cypress Swamp, where so many of our rare and little- known orchids live. Sometimes on trees or vines in southern Florida, one will find an unusual fleshy- leaved orchid with its myriads of slender white roots tightly wrapped around the branch to which it clings. Perhaps this plant will be in flower ; a rather tall spike waves in the breeze, at the top of which are arranged a large number of somewhat triangular- shaped, white blossoms, that are frequently marked with light or dark purple on the lip. This is Ionopsis utricular* aides, one of the most beautiful of all our native epiphytes, but now unfortunately a rather rare plant. This is another species with a large distribution, but since it is confined to this hemisphere, it does not approach Polystachya luteola in the immensity of its range. Deep in the heart of the Everglades there are localities in which this beautiful epiphyte covers huge grapevine lianas from top to bottom and carpets the adjoining trees with great masses of plants. It must be a beautiful sight to see an area like this during the blooming season, with thousands of the white flowers scattered through the dense jungle growth. Although not even in the same sub- tribe with it, the genus Macradenia is fairly closely related to Ionopsis. Our native species, if. lutescens. is 43 a medium- sized plant with a generally pendent raceme of yellowish flowers spotted on the inside with dull brown or purple. It seems to be excessively rare, but has been found in the Big Cypress Swamp and other localities in the extreme southern part of the state. One of the most spectacular and beautiful of our native epiphytic orchids is the very variable spider orchid, Brassia caudata. In the phase which is found in southern Florida, where it is very rare, the plant is large, with big flattened pseudobulbs and long spikes of spidery yellow flowers that are spotted with brown and that have a foetid odor. The blossoms last several weeks in perfection. Even with our native orchids, we occasionally find a species that is very difficult to grow under artificial conditions. Such a plant is the rare Maxillaria crassifolia; it is usually found in the Big Cypress Swamp, where it frequently grows as a terrestrial plant. Under cultivation it usually grows much better if treated in this way instead of as an epiphyte. At first glance this species certainly does not resemble an orchid, but looks much more like a small iris, if out of flower. The plant consists of irregular fans of fleshy leaves without any visible pseudobulbs. The blossoms appear singly on short stems near the base of the plant, are yellow in color, and do not open completely. It is not a particularly beautiful plant, but the flowers are very interesting if studied closely. Several of the so- called " terrestrial" species occasionally exceed their territory and get up into the trees, thus becoming epiphytic or semi-epiphytic in habit. Usually these plants are found in cavities or crevices that have filled with humus or other debris which gives them all the nourishment they need. Chief among the species of this class, intermediate between the terrestrials and the epiphytes, are Liparis data and Bletia tuberosa. Many more of the normally ground- dwelling species, however, have been found growing in this manner. And now we have finished with the epiphytic orchids of Florida— or should I say " finished" ? For these interesting air- plants may be studied for years and years without learning everything about them. Orchids are perhaps the most famed and yet most misunderstood of all plants, and if one delves into their history a little, a fascinating subject is revealed. We have the material for this study in our own country, growing wild in the southernmost state of Florida, where strange and beautiful orchids flourish in the tropical jungles and hammocks, for all to see and admire. These are orchids at their best— wild ones at home. Unfortunately many of the more showy species of our native orchids are rapidly being brought perilously close to the point of extinction, and since orchids take so very long to reproduce themselves from seed, a great deal of temperance in orchid collecting must be observed. Otherwise our Florida epiphytic orchids will go the way of so many of the beautiful wild plants of this nation. 44 Current Literature* At a Glance New Cactus Genus. In the December number of the Cactus and Succulent Journal, E. J. Alexander describes a new genus in the Cactaceae, from a plant collected in 1939 by Thomas MacDougall, with whom he is now exploring in Mexico. Lobeira is the new genus and Mac Doug allii the specific name accorded to the novelty, which somewhat resembled an epiphyllum until it bloomed with large silky flowers of mallow- purple. Mr. Alexander named the genus for Senora Lobeira ( pronounced lo- i/ ay- rah) who was growing the plant in her garden from material brought to her by a native from nearby Cerro Hueitepec. Araliads and Umbellifers. The latest issue of North American Flora, Part 1 of Vol. 28B, contains the Araliaceae by Albert C. Smith and part of the treatment of the Umbelliferae by Mildred E. Mathias and Lincoln Constance. Brittonia. The two numbers of Brittonia which appeared in September ( Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. 5) contain studies in and of the genera Schisms, Lotus, Cornus, Erigeron, Carex, Scirpus, Strychnos. Sedum, Phlox, and others, in addition to miscellaneous papers bv E. D. Merrill, Charles L. Gilly, Rogers McVaugh, Otto Degener. John D. Dwyer, and Arthur Cronquist. Western Nature Studies. Margaret McKenny is the author of a loose- leaf book of Washington Nature Notes published by tlie Washington Book Society in Otyvnpia, where she has been engaged in presenting nature study radio programs for children. Trees, flowers, mushrooms, birds, and animals are treated and all are illustrated, many of them with her own photographs. Notebooks and Checklists. Published a generation and more ago, the numerous notebooks and checklists of plants and animals issued by the Slingerland- Com-stock Co, in Ithaca, N. Y., are still being made available to nature- study groups and individuals, Included in these pocket-size booklets are simple guides to mosses, * All publications mentioned here— and many others— may be found in the Librarv of the Botanical Garden, in tlu- Museum Building. trees, wild flowers, and ferns. There is also a plant notebook, containing questions with spaces for their answers and some drawings to be filled in, and a pocket- size folio of outline drawings of 98 wild flowers on watercolor paper. Day- Length for Beans. Whether the days are long or short may affect the form of the plant or the flowering and fruiting of beans and other legumes, according to studies by H. A. Allard and W. J. Zaumeyer, published as Technical Bulletin No. 867 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. While the majority of beans grown in the vegetable garden are day- neutral, these investigators found, the semi- pole varieties would become bushy on short photoperiods and twining on the longer ones. Plants belonging to other leguminous genera exhibited different reactions, and species of Phaseolus native to the equatorial zone refused to flower under the longer midsummer days at Washington, D. C. Notes, News, and Comment Surinam J'isitors. Lieutenant Lisa Stahel, who is the wife of Dr. Gerold Stahel, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station in Paramaribo, Surinam, and the author of several articles that have appeared in this Journal, brought some of her group of 20 Surinam girls to the New York Botanical Garden Dec. 29, to see the conservatory displays and to view some of the kodachrome pictures taken by Dr. Bassett Maguire in Surinam last year. Mrs. Stahel, who is commanding officer in Paramaribo for the Netherlands West Indian Woman's Army Auxiliary Corps, was in New York for about two weeks on her way to the Far East. The score of young women accompanying her had all volunteered for service with the Netherlands Army Medical Corps in Asia. Annual Meeting. New Corporation members elected at the annual meeting of the New York Botanical Garden Jan. 16 in the office of President Joseph R. Swan are William H. Bell. President of the American Cyanamid Company; Mrs. Melvin Sawin, who became a member of the Garden's Advisory Council last year; 45 Manfred Wahl, retired industrialist of Philadelphia and a sustaining member of the Garden; and Alain C. White of Litchfield, Conn., also a sustaining member and the author of several notable books on succulent plants. All officers were re- elected, and the seven board members whose terms were expiring were re- elected for another three- year period. They are Arthur M. Anderson, Pierre Jay, Clarence McK. Lewis, E. D. Merrill, Henry de la Montagne, Francis E. Powell, Jr., and William J. Robbins. New committee appointments made were William Felton Barrett on the City Relations committee with Henry de Forest Baldwin and Mrs. Harold I. Pratt, and Francis E. Powell, Jr., on the Finance committee with Pierre Jay and H. Hobart Porter. Mrs. Robert H. Fife read the annual report of the Advisory Council. Among the out- o f- town members of the Board and Corporation who came to New York for the meeting were E. C. Auchter, Research Administrator, U. S. D. A. Agricultural Research Administration, of Washington, D. C, and E. D. Merrill, Administrator of Botanical Collections, Harvard University H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., of Caracas, Venezuela, also attended the meeting. Dr. Robbins interrupted the reading of his annual report with a demonstration of the significance of herbarium specimens, showing examples of several " lost" plants that have lately been rediscovered and giving the history of several specimens taken from the herbarium, some of them gathered in the early part of the 19th century. The report in full will be published in the spring as a supplement to the Journal. Robert T. Morris. Hailed as " one of America's first great modern surgeons," Dr. Robert T. Morris died at Stamford. Conn., Jan. 9 at the age of 87. He had been a member of the Corporation of the New York Botanical Garden for 20 years, and from his home, Merribrook Farm, in Stamford, he had written many letters of comment and query to the Garden. Dr. Morris was the author of noteworthy scientific and popular books chiefly dealing with medicine, one of the last of which was " Fifty Years a Surgeon," published in 1934. Nut- growing was one of his occupations on his 430- acre farm, which was also a wild- life sanctuary and arboretum, and he wrote a book on this subject in 1921. He is credited with bringing many modern ideas into the practice of surgery, championing antiseptic methods and initiating techniques which greatly reduced the death rate in operations. One of the four books he published in 1918 was " Microbes and Men" in which he attempted to " diagnose" famous writers from their works. Conference. Dr. H. A. Gleason spoke on " A Collection of Melastomes from Colombia" at the monthly conference of the staff and registered students of the Garden Jan. 18, and Dr. A. B. Stout on " Intra- specific Incompatibilities in Relation to Populations" the same day. The melastome collection consists of some 300 specimens sent from Colombia by Jose Quatrecasas. Lectures. Two Garden Club Affiliates hearing talks by members of the Botanical Garden's staff last month were the Little Gardens Club of Greenwich Village, where Elizabeth C. Hall spoke on " The Literature of Gardening" Jan. 8 and the Garden Club of Mamaroneck, N. Y., where Dr. H. W. Rickett spoke Jan. 29 on " Gardens of Cloister and Castle." Orchids. H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., who is a member of the Corporation, returned last month from Venezuela bringing the Garden a collection of 50 or more orchid plants which he had gathered in the wild. Visitors. Dr. Harold St. John, Professor of Botany in the University of Hawaii, who is returning from two years of cinchona exploration in Colombia, was at the Garden Jan. 22. Dr. Sterling Hendricks of the Division of Soils and Fertilizers, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Diseases, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, came to the Garden Dec. 28 to consult with Dr. William J. Robbins on hormones and growth substances. Among other visitors of recent weeks have been C. K. Tseng of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.; C. L. Huskins of McGill University, Montreal; Jack Ziffer, head of the department of zymomycology for Schenley Research Institute, Lawrence-burg, Ind.; S. H. Hutner of Haskins Laboratories; Cecil Yampolsky of New 46 York City; and Harvey Bassler of the American Museum of Natural History. Dean. Prof. E. W. Sinnott, who was a member of the Board of Managers of the New York Botanical Garden for seven years, until he left Columbia University in 1940 to go to Yale as Sterling Professor of Botany and Director of the Osborn Botanical Laboratories, has been appointed Dean of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, to succeed Prof. C. H. Warren upon his retirement at the end of the current academic year. Dr. Sinnott was the author, with Robert Bloch, of an article entitled " Luffa Sponges, A New Crop for the Americas," which appeared in this Journal in June 1943. Thomas Little. Superintendent of the estate of Col. Robert H. Montgomery at Cos Cob, Conn., Thomas Little died Jan. 19. For the past five years be had been an instructor in several of the courses in practical gardening given by the New York Botanical Garden, beginning with the Three- Day Short Course offered in the spring of 1941. Two years later he also was one of the six instructors on the roster for the new Three- Day Short Course in Vegetable Gardening. He was likewise one of the lecturers in the six- weeks' course in vegetable gardening presented by R. H. Macy & Co. under the supervision of the New York Botanical Garden in 1943, and in the afternoon and evening series of gardening lectures organized early in 1941 by the New York Times in co- operation with the New York Botanical Garden. In April 1944 Mr. Little gave one of the Garden's Saturday afternoon lectures, speaking on " Late Spring Work in the Vegetable Garden." On the Montgomery estate, where he had been superintendent for about IS years, Mr. Little had worked extensively in building up the collection of evergreens, for which the property was famous. He also won acclaim for his successful culture of many other kinds of plants, both outdoors and in the greenhouse. Trophy. George H. Gillies, Head Gardener for the Marshall Field estate and an instructor at the Botanical Garden, was awarded the silver trophy for 1944 by the Horticultural Society of New York. He had competed in all shows and monthly meetings during the year. Anti- hiotics. Jeane Onslow of the Institute of Pathology of Western Pennsylvania Hospital in Pittsburgh has come to the Botanical Garden to work for a month or two in the laboratory of Dr. William J. Robbins, to become acquainted with methods used in studying antibiotic substances produced by molds. H. H. Whetzel. For 43 years a member of the Department of Botany at Cornell University, Prof. H. H. Whetzel died after a long illness Nov. 30 at the age of 67. He was head of the department there from 1906 to 1922. A plant pathologist, he worked particularly on Botrytis and on Sclerotinia and its related genera, studying their taxonomy as well as the diseases they caused. Until the last few years he had been a frequent visitor to the New York Botanical Garden. In October 1942 he contributed an article to the Journal on his leading hobby of growing wild flowers from seed. He also contributed many papers to Mycologia and had worked on Sclerotinia for North American Flora, but this work was never finished. He was one of the founders of the Mycological Society of America. William T. Davis. An entomologist who had been a lifelong friend of Drs. N. L. Britton and Arthur Hollick, particularly in the early days when they were making some of their first botanical collections, died in the Staten Island Hospital Jan. 22 at the age of 87. He was William Thompson Davis. Though his primary interest was the cicadas of North America, he did considerable work on the local flora, and in years gone by was well known around the New York Botanical Garden. He published about 25 papers on native plants. Scirpus tatora. According to a letter received from Alan A. Beetle too late for making corrections in the January Journal, all species of Scirpus illustrated in his article, " Sedge Boats in the Andes," are S. tatora, the narrowly endemic sedge of the shores of Lake Titicaca. S. californicus. Dr. Beetle savs. is a more common, low- elevation relative. Lecturer. Rupert C. Barneby is giving the Saturday afternoon lecture Feb. 17 on " Plant Life of the Mediterranean Region." Mr. Barneby, who is a graduate 47 R E D C R O S S E X H I B IT I N C O N S E R V A T O R I ES rT", 0 aid the Red Cross in its spring campaign, the New York Botanical -*- Garden is staging in the conservatories in March a huge red cross of a newly patented blood- red azalea which has been named for Lambertus C. Bobbink. The background of the cross will be made of plants of a hardy white azalea named " Snow." There will also be a typical field dressing station of the Red Cross, designed after the stations that are being set up in the Philippines and other islands of the Far East, directly back of the battle lines. Plants that are native to these islands will be used for the surroundings of the station, and Red Cross nurses, with their customary field equipment, will be in attendance. The Bronx County Red Cross 1945 War Fund office is co- operating in arranging the exhibit. A special ceremony Sunday afternoon, March 4, will precede the opening of the display to the public. of Cambridge University, England, has done botanical exploring in the area. Frank E. Egler, who was originally scheduled for this program, was at last report at Camp Pickett in Virginia and said he was headed for southern Texas. Tropical Fruits, To illustrate the three talks given by Otto Degener in the current Saturday afternoon series on " Plants of the Regions Where our Men and Women are Serving," tropical fruits of many varieties were displayed on the stage of the lecture hall. The Garden is indebted for these to Dr. David Fair-child of Coconut Grove, Florida, to Edwin A. Menninger of Stuart, Florida, and to Dr. George D. Ruehle of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University at Homestead, Florida. Dancer. East Indian hand positions and movements which illustrate flowers, trees, vines, and other forms of plant life were demonstrated by Juana of the Ethnologic Dance Center in New York at the lecture on " Vegetation of India and Burma" given by Otto Degener at the Garden Feb. 3. A brief talk on the form and symbolism of the Hindu dance preceded the demonstration. Tlie program was concluded with a Burmese dance representing a flower swaying in the wind. Radio. The first broadcast in the New York Botanical Garden's next series over WNYC will have Mrs. Elizabeth Williams, a Red Cross overseas worker who has recently returned from two years of sen ice in the South Pacific, as the speaker. The program will be given March 9 at 3 : 30 p. m. Saturday Programs. The spring series of Saturday afternoon programs at the Garden will deal with " The Great Groups of Plants— How They Live from Year to Year." Speakers will be members of the staff. Starting March 17, the series will be preceded on March 10 and followed April 28 by a motion picture. 48 LITERATURE CITED In " Longevity of Seeds" by William Crocker Ap'pcaring on pages 25- 35 1. Avery, A. G., and A. F. Blakeslee. Mutation rate in Datura seed which had been buried 39 years. Genetics 28: 69- 70. 1943. 2. Crocker, William. Life- span of seeds. Bot. Review 4: 235- 274. 1938. 3 Life span of seeds. In Book of Boyce Thompson Institute. ( To be published later.) 4. Duration of viability in seeds. Gard. Chron. I l l : 234. 1942. 5. Robertson, D. W., and Anna M. Lute. Germination of the seed of farm crops in Colorado after storage for various periods of years. Jour. Agric. Res. 46: 455- 462. 1933. 6. Sifton, H. B. Longevity of the seeds of cereals, clovers, and timothy. Amer. Jour. Bot. 7: 243- 251. 1920. New Term Announced for Teachers' Course A SECOND term of study in ^ *• the course for New York City public school teachers, inaugurated last September at the New York Botanical Garden in co- operation with the Board of Education, will begin Feb. 21. While none of the work will duplicate that of the autumn term, neither series of talks and demonstrations is considered a prerequisite for the other. As before, the course will be in charge of Dr. E. E. Naylor, with the cooperation of Marvin M. Brooks, Director of School Gardens for the New York City Board of Education, and the majority of the sessions will be directed by them. In addition, one lecture each will be given by Dr. B. O. Dodge, T. H. Everett, and Elizabeth C. Hall of the Botanical Garden's staff. The course will occupy 15 successive Wednesday afternoons with the omission of April 4, meeting in the Museum Building from 4 to 6. It will comprise 30 hours of work, applicable toward alertness credit awarded to teachers by the Board of Education. Below is the tentative schedule of subjects. Feb. 21. Registration at Museum Building. 4 o'clock Trip to the Conservatories. 28. Garden Publications, Journals, Catalogues. Mar. 7. Tender Plants from Bulbs. Greenhouse Studies. 14. Soil Study and Weather. 21. Foliage Plants for the Class Room. Observations in the Greenhouses. 28. Cuttings & Problems of Propagation. Studies in the Propagating Houses, Apr. 11. Planning the Vegetable Garden. 18. Science in the Garden. 25. Early Spring Garden Plants. Seeds, Planting, Watering and Care. May 2. School Garden Management & Vandalism. 9. Later Garden Plantings. 16. Animal Life in the Garden. 23. Insect Pests & Diseases of Garden Plants. June 6. Garden Tour. Transplanting, Thinning, etc. 13. Note Books and Examinations. The fee for New York City teachers is $ 2. Dr. Naylor Miss Hall Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Dr. Naylor Mr. Everett Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Dodge Dr. Naylor \ Mrs. Thomson } Dr. Naylor THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Officers JOSEPH R. SWAN, President HENRY DE FOREST BALDWIN, Vice- president JOHN L. MERRILL, Vice- president ARTHUR M. ANDERSON, Treasurer HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE, Secretary Elective Managers E. G AUCHTER MRS. ELON HUNTINGTON H. HOBART PORTER WILLIAM FELTON BARRETT HOOKER FRANCIS E POWELL JR EnwiN DE T. BECHTEL PIERRE JAY ,, „ u ' T o ' ' HENRY F. DU PONT CLARENCE MCK. LEWIS M R S ' HAHOLD I. PRATT MARSHALL FIELD E. D. MERRILL WILLIAM J. ROBBINS REV. ROBT. I. GANNON, S. J ROBERT H. MONTGOMERY A. PERCY SAUNDERS Ex- Officio Managers FIORELLO H. LAGUARDIA, Mayor of the City of New York MARY E. DILLON, President of the Board of Education ROBERT MOSES, Park Commissioner Appointive Managers By the Torrey Botanical Club H. A. GLEASON By Columbia University MARSTON T. BOGERT MARCUS M. RHOADES CHARLES W. BALLARD SAM F. TRELEASE THE STAFF WILLIAM J. ROBBINS, P H . D . , SC. D. Director H. A. GLEASON, P H . D . Assistant Director and Curator HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE Assistant Director FRED J. SEAVER, P H . D . , SC. D. Head Curator A. B. STOUT, P H . D . Curator of Education and Laboratories BERNARD O. DODGE, P H . D . Plant Pathologist JOHN HENDLEY BARNHART, A. M., M. D. Bibliographer Emeritus H. W. RICKETT, P H . D . Bibliographer BASSETT MAGUIRE, P H . D . Curator HAROLD N. MOLDENKE, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Associate Curator ELIZABETH C. HALL, A. B., B. S. Librarian ELMER N. MITCHELL Photographer ROBERT S. WILLIAMS Research Associate in Bryology E. J. ALEXANDER, B. S. Assistant Curator and Curator of the Local Herbarium W. H. CAMP, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Assistant Curator FRANCES E. WYNNE, P H . D . Assistant Curator E. E. NAYLOR, P H . D . Assistant Curator ARTHUR CRONQUIST, P H . D . Assistant Curator SELMA KOJAN, B. S. Technical Assistant ROSALIE WEIKERT Technical Assistant CAROL H. WOODWARD, A. B. Editor of the Journal THOMAS H. EVERETT. N. D. HORT. Horticulturist G. L. WITTROCK, A. M. Custodian of the Herbarium OTTO DEGENER. M. S. Collaborator in Haimiian Botany A. J. GROUT, P H . D . Honorary Curator of Mosses ROBERT HAGELSTEIN Honorary Curator of Myxomycetes JOSEPH F. BURKE Honorary Curator of the Diatomaceae B. A. KRUKOFF Honorary Curator of Economic Botany ETHEL ANSON S. PECK HAM Honorary Curator, Iris and Narcissus Collections A. C. PFANDER Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds To reach the Botanical Garden, take the Independent Subway to Bedford Park Blvd. station; use the Bedford Park Blvd. exit and walk east. Or take the Third Avenue Elevated to the Bronx Park or the 200th St. station, or the New York Central to the Botanical Garden station. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Books* Booklets, and Special Numbers of the Journal An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown. Three volumes, giving descriptions and illustrations of 4,666 species. Second edition, reprinted. $ 13.50. Flora of the Prairies and Plains of Central North America, by P. A. Rydberg 969 pages and 601 figures. 1932. Price, $ 5.50 postpaid. The Bahama Flora by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Charles Frederick Millspaugh. 695 pages. Descriptions of the spermatophytes, pteridophytes, bryophytes, and thallophytes of the Bahamas, with keys, notes on explorations and collections, bibliography, and index. 1920. $ 6.25. North American Cariceae, by Kenneth K. Mackenzie, containing 539 plates of Carex and related plants hy Harry C. Creutzburg, with a description of each species. Indexed. 1940. Two volumes, 10^ 4 x 1 3 1 / inches; bound $ 17.50; unbound $ 15.50. Keys to the North American Species of Carex by K. K. Mackenzie. From Vol. 19, Part 1, of North American Flora. $ 1.25. Plants of the Holy Scriptures by Eleanor King, illustrated, and accompanied by a list of Plants of the Bible with quotations, in the March 1941 Journal. 15 cents. Food and Drug Plants of the North American Indian. Two illustrated articles by Marion A. 6? G. L. Wittrock in the Journal for March 1942. 15 cents. Vegetables and Fruits for the Home Garden. Four authoritative articles reprinted from the Journal, 21 pages, illustrated. Edited by Carol H. Woodward. 1941. 15 cents. The Flora of the Unicorn Tapestries by E. J. Alexander and Carol H. Wood' ward. 28 pages, illustrated with photographs and drawings; bound with paper. 1941. 25 cents. An Herbal. First published by Richard Banckes in London. 1525. Edited and transcribed into modern English with an introduction by Sanford V. Larkey, M. D., and Thomas Pyles. 200 pages, including facsimile of original. Prepared by Scholars' Facsimiles and Reprints. 1941. Price to members of the Garden, $ 2.50; to others, $ 3.50. Catalog of Hardy Trees and Shrubs. A list of the woody plants being grown outdoors at the New York Botanical Garden in 1942, in 127 pages with notes, a map, and 20 illustrations. 75 cents. Succulent Plants of New and Old World Deserts by E. J. Alexander. 64 pages, indexed. 350 species treated, 100 illustrated. Bound in paper. 1942. Second edition 1944. 50 cents. Periodicals Addisonia, annually, devoted exclusively to colored plates accompanied by popular descriptions of flowering plants; eight plates in each number, thirty- two in each volume. Now in its twenty- second volume. Subscription price, $ 10 a volume ( four years). Not offered in exchange. Free to members of the Garden. Journal of The New York Botanical Garden, monthly, containing news, book reviews, and non- technical articles on botany and horticulture. Subscription, $ 1 a year; single copies 15 cents. Free to members of the Garden. Now in its 45th volume. Mycologia, bimonthly, illustrated in color and otherwise; devoted to fungi, including lichens, containing technical articles and news and notes of general interest. $ 7 a year; single copies $ 1.50 each. Now in its thirty- sixth volume. Twenty- four Year Index volume $ 3. Brittonia. A series of botanical papers published in co- operation with the American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Subscription price, $ 5 a volume. Now in its fifth volume. North American Flora. Descriptions of the wild plants of North America, including Greenland, the West Indies, and Centra! America. 100 parts now issued. Not offered in exchange. Prices of the separate parts on request. Contributions from The New York Botanical Garden. A series of technical papers reprinted from journals other than the above. 25 cents each, $ 5 a volume. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden. A collection of scientific papers Contents and prices on request.
Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.
Contributor | New York Botanical Garden |
Date | 1945-02 |
Description-Table Of Contents | Longevity of Seeds; Epiphytic Orchids of Florida; Red Cross Exhibit; Teachers' Course. |
Format | application/pdf |
Format-Extent | 51 v. : ill. ; 25 cm. |
Identifier | 0885-4165 |
Language | eng |
Publisher | Bronx : New York Botanical Garden, 1900-1950 |
Relation-Is Part Of | Journal of the New York Botanical Garden : v. 1, no. 1-v. 51, no. 612 |
Relation-IsVersionOfURI | http://opac.nybg.org/record=b1104879 |
Rights | http://www.nybg.org/library/ |
Subject | Plants--Periodicals; Gardening--Periodicals; Plants, Cultivated--Periodicals; New York Botanical Garden--Periodicals. |
Title | Journal of the New York Botanical Garden |
Volume, Number | Vol. 46, no. 542 |
Type | text |
Transcript | JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN VOL. 46 Xo. 542 FEBRUARY 1 9 4 5 PAGES 2 5 ^ 8 JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN CAROL H. WOODWARD, Editor L I V I N G M O N U M E N TS FOR ALL OUR BOYS By Millicent Easter Marine In memory of me, please don't erect A dreary stone that would reflect— No thought of joy or living things, Or hope, for which the whole world 6ings. I ask that you go plant a tree To cast a shadow, cool, for me. A tree to bless the weary earth, Or any monument of vital worth! Soldier In haunting memory, on marble cold, I want no story of my valor told. Forlorn and desolate, they stand for years, Despair they bring, and lonely tears. Instead, I beg you plan a place— A playground— where children race, Where laughter rings, and children sing, And mothers, there, their babies bring. Sailor I want a woodland— dark and deep— Where ferns, like sea- weed shadows creep, A little lake— a bathing beach— A happy place— in easy reach. For city children, denied the joy That I once knew, as d. bare- foot boy. Or ( of man- made ice) a skating rink— Are among the worth- while things, I think. Flyer For all the boys— on sea or land— For all the Flyers— who victory planned— From the Spirit World— We unite our pleas— For playgrounds— pools— and glorious trees! No futile piles of stone to mar The landscape view, both near and far! Dead monuments are but idle toys— Give living things for our noble boys! ( Reprinted by courtesy of The Matrix) TABLE OF CONTENTS February 194? PRIMULA OBCONICA, from the February Members' Day Exhibit Cover photograph by Elmer N. Mitchell LONGEVITY OF SEEDS CURRENT LITERATURE 44 William Crocker 26 NOTES, NEWS, AND COMMENT 44 EPIPHYTIC ORCHIDS OF FLORIDA RED CROSS EXHIBIT 47 Alex D. Hawkes 38 TEACHERS' COURSE 48 The Journal is published monthly by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York 58, N. Y. Printed in U. S. A. Entered at the Post Office in New York. N. Y., as second- class matter. Annual subscription $ 1.00. Single copies 15 cents. Free to members of the Garden. JOURNAL 0/ THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN VOL. 46 FEBRUARY 1945 No. 542 S E E D S OF A N T I Q U I TY O TORIES of wheat that has sprouted after centuries of burial in the dark' ^ ness of an ancient Egyptian tomb and of peas that have been grown in gardens recently from seeds that had been stored beside a mummy long before the Christian era are perennially appearing in print. In the past year par-ticularly several accounts have been published of peas which had been taken directly from a container sealed within the tomb of Tut- ankh- amen 3,300 years ago, and which germinated and grew. No one today is a greater authority of the length of time that seeds may be expected to live than William Crocker, Director of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Inc., in Yonkers. To answer the many questions that have been sent to the New York Botanical Garden lately regarding the veracity of these repeated tales, Dr. Crocker has generously consented to write the accompanying article on the life- span of seeds, presenting the facts as they have been revealed through his own research and that of others here and abroad. It will be seen very shortly that wheat that has been stored ten years will germinate almost 100 per cent; but if 15 years are added to this period, the rate of germination is reduced to a negligible figure. A long way, this, from the hundreds, possibly thousands, of years of storage in Egyptian tombs! Seeds of the same kind of lotus ( H. elumbium) that was cultivated in the waters of the Nile have germinated after they have been in storage 250 years, and buried seeds of lotus from a lake bed in Manchuria, where they had lain for perhaps two to four hundred years, have also sprouted successfully. Members of the Pea family, which, like the lotus, are apt to have hard, impervious seed- coats, also rank among the seeds of long life duration. Some of these have been found to be viable after about 150 years and might be 25 26 viable even longer. But scientific tests remain to be made on seed 500, 1,000, and 3,000 years old. Dr. Crocker's statements should put an end to future speculation on mummy wheat, at least, if not on the garden peas from Tut- ankh- amen's tomb; but, as others have also predicted, these tales will without doubt be perpetually revived.— C. H. W. Longevity of Seeds1 By William Crocker PROFESSOR EWART, in his booklet " On the Longevity of Seeds," 1908, says in part: " . . . such fables as the supposed germination of mummy wheat have long since been exploded." He was evidently too optimistic about the ease of disposing permanently of the mummy wheat fable, for it has been repeatedly revived and exploded since 1908 and will probably recurrently revive and be exploded in the future. Seeds of farm and garden plants are not long- lived. It is rare except under very special storage conditions that any seeds of these crops will remain viable more than 25 years. Seeds of Short Life Duration Seeds of a number of species of plants remain alive for relatively short periods ( days, weeks, or months) when exposed to drying or other detrimental factors of the atmosphere. Among such seeds are spring-fruiting maples of this region, Indian or wild rice, chestnuts, hickory nuts, walnuts and other nuts, acorns, poplar, willow, citrus, sugar cane, Hevea, elm, and others. In the river maple ( Acer saccharimun) and Indian rice ( Zizania aquatica) the main and perhaps the sole injurious effect of the air is drying. In the former the seeds bear about 58 per cent water when they fall from the tree and are killed when the water falls to 30 to 34 per cent, regardless of speed and temperature of drying. In nature, the seeds fall with the radical pointing downward and many germinate immediately, thus avoiding drying. These seeds retained full vitality for 102 days when, stored at 0° C. in a way to prevent drying and accumulation of carbon dioxide. This was the duration of the experiment so there is little doubt 1 Practically all facts and conclusions in this paper are based on two papers ( 2, 3) written on this subject by the author: " Life- Span of Seeds" in the Botanical Review 4: 235- 274, 1938, and a chapter, " Life Span of Seeds," in Book of Boyce Thompson Institute, to be published soon. Both of these papers are fully documented, consequently few additional citations are called for in this article. For these few citations, referred to by numbers in parenthesis, see the end of the article. 27 that they will retain their vitality much longer than this under these conditions. Indian rice stored in air also seems to be killed by drying. In nature the seeds generally fall in water and remain in the cold water until spring, when they germinate. These seeds can be stored in water at or a little above the freezing point until spring. In this condition they after- ripen as well as retain their vitality and are ready to grow in the spring. Willow seeds endure thorough drying if the drying occurs rapidly and at a low temperature as is the case when they are sealed with a desiccating agent and placed in an ice- chest. Poplar seeds retain their vitality for 22 months if sealed in a vacuum and stored at a low temperature. American elm seeds lose their vitality almost completely in 6 months in open air, but retain full vitality for more than 5 years when kept in sealed storage at 5° to - 5° C. with a water content of 2 to 7 per cent. The two articles on life span of seeds on which this paper is based describe experiments on several other short- lived seeds showing the atmospheric factors that kill the seeds and the conditions necessary for prolonging the lives of the seeds. Seeds of Medium Life Duration Seeds of most of our farm and vegetable garden plants still retain a low percentage of viability after a few to possibly as much as 25 years in some cases when stored in the manner of common practice. Vilmorin, the well known seed and horticultural firm of France, kept many records of the life span of seeds. According to these records, oats and barley had an average life of 3 years and timothy and flax 2 years, and the extreme limit of seeds were maize 4 years, lettuce 9 years, onion 7 years, crucifers ( cabbage, turnips, rape, and radish) 10 years, and cucurbits ( watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, etc.) and beets 10- f- years. The climate of France is evidently unfavorable for retention of viability of seeds, for the records of the life span of the same kinds of seeds by other workers is much greater than the Vilmorin records. Robertson and Lute ( 5) of Colorado determined the percentage germination of several varieties of wheat, barley, oats. Rosen rye. Wisconsin Black soybean, and one variety of corn after various years of storage in the Colorado climate. The following shows the percentage germination after the periods of storage mentioned: varieties of wheat 89.8 to 98.4 per cent; varieties of barley 68.1 to 100 per cent; and varieties of oats 81.8 to 91.9 per cent ( all after 10 years of storage) ; rye 52 per cent after 9 years of storage; soybeans 48.1 per cent after 8 years; Black Amber sorghum 97.9 per cent after 6 years; and corn 79 per cent after 9 years. At the beginning all the seeds gave 100 per cent germination except corn, which gave 92 per cent. 28 Dillman and Toole found that flax stored in the dry climate of Mandan, N. D., gave 58 per cent germination after 18 years of storage, and Goff of Geneva, N. Y., found that rutabaga gave 50 per cent germination and muskmelon 56 per cent after 14 years of storage; cucumber 14 per cent after 19 years; beet 24 per cent after 15 years; and tomato 56 per cent after 16 years. Sifton of Ottawa, Canada, got 2 per cent germination for 17- year- old wheat, 41 per- cent for 19- year oats, 10 per cent for 12- year timothy; Karper and Jones ( Texas) got 4 per cent for 18- year and 0.4 per cent for 19- year- old sorghum. Finally, Percival of England got 16 per cent germination in 25- year- old wheat that was especially dried and sealed in a bottle. All of the workers show that the life span given by Vilmorin is too short for the same seeds stored in more favorable climates, but none of them indicate that the life span is likely to exceed greatly 25 years for ordinary storage. Sifton's ( 6) results are especially significant on the last point, for his curves show that once the vitality drops 10 to 20 per cent the fall is rapid thereafter. Oats may be a partial exception, for the vitality in oats had not dropped 20 per cent until after more than 15 years and still gave 40 per cent germination after 19 years. In Sifton's curves there is a tendency for the curves to flatten out somewhat again after the viability reaches a low value, indicating that there are a few seeds in each batch that are rather persistent. Still, the mummy wheat fable gets no support from these data. Good Storage Conditions Increase Greatly the Life Span of Seeds Table I shows how much improved but not optimum storage conditions lengthen the vitality of relatively short- lived delphinium seeds. These seeds were kept in a heated laboratory from harvest until December, when they were put into storage. Judging from our records of the water content of various kinds of seeds in the laboratory during each month of the year and from the fact that these seeds are fatty, they probably bore about 6 per cent water when put into storage. The annual delphinium seeds stored open in the laboratory fell continuously in percentage germination with duration of storage and were all dead after 46 months. In these, of course, both the water content and the temperature fluctuated with the season. Contrast with these the seeds sealed and stored at 8° and 5° C. These had not fallen in percentage germination after 143 months and still gave more than half of the original germination after 193 months, or more than 16 years of storage. These seeds were kept constant both as to moisture and temperature. They gave about the same percentage germination after 193 months of storage as those open in the laboratory gave after 29 TABLE I Viability of Delphinium Seeds Stored under Various Conditions Storage Germination percentages after Seed conditions months of storage 11 22 46 69 111 123 143 168 193 Annual, 72% Open room temp. 57 44 0 0 — — — — — germinated when Sealed room temp. 75 80 50 15 0 0 — — stored Open 8° C* 50 41 31 5 0 0 — — — Sealed 8° C* 70 67 66 80 76 71 71 48 43 Perennial, 43% Open room temp. 11 0 0 — — — — — germinated when Sealed room temp. 35 21 0 0 — — — ��� stored Open - 15° C.** 44 45 37 27 8 6 8 3 — Sealed - 15° C.* » 42 53 57 44 49 50 45 45 33 * After 7 years tlie temperature was changed to 5° C. ** After 7 years the temperature was changed to - 5° C. 22 months. Those sealed at room temperature and those stored open at 8° and 5° C. were intermediate in life span. The first had constant moisture with higher and fluctuating temperature and the latter constant temperature with changing moisture content. For the perennial delphinium seeds, open and sealed storage at room temperature were both unfavorable with the former more so. Sealed storage at - 15° and - 5° C. was very favorable while open storage at sub-freezing temperatures was considerably less favorable. In the 193 months of storage sealed at the low temperature these seeds had lost only one-third of their original germination capacity. Both the annual and perennial seeds were stored at the 8° and 5° C. and at the - 15° and - 5° C. combinations. The annuals retained their viability best at 8° and 5° C, and the perennials best at - 15° and - 5°. Probably with more thorough drying the lower temperature would also have been more favorable for the annuals since freezing does not generally injure seeds that are dried sufficiently. Judging from this table, sealed storage at low temperature in contrast to open storage at room temperature lengthened the life span of annual delphinium seeds about 9- fold and of perennial delphinium seeds more than 17- fold. If even such short- lived seeds as delphinium were stored under optimum conditions, it might take a lifetime to watch over their slow complete demise. Extensive seed storage studies by investigators at this laboratory and by many investigators elsewhere show that for seeds that endure considerable artificial desiccation there are three factors that increase their longevity: low and constant moisture content, low temperatures, and absence of oxygen. Changing one of these factors modifies the effect of the other two; seeds with low constant moisture content are less injured by high or low temperatures or oxygen pressure than those with high moisture. 30 Different kinds of seeds vary greatly in the degree of desiccation they will endure without injury; we have seen above that certain seeds are killed by very moderate drying, certain pines are injured if dried much below 3 per cent moisture, while radish seeds are apparently not injured by complete withdrawal of the water. It would be of value to know the lowest water content to which one could dry each kind of commercial seed without injury, for that is probably the best water content for storage of any particular kind of seed. It would also be fine to know the optimum temperature for storing of each sort of seed when it was dried to the optimum moisture content for storage. It may be that absolute zero is the optimum temperature for storage of seeds that stand thorough desiccation. We do know that seeds that stand thorough desiccation keep well and probably best in total absence of oxygen. It is interesting to speculate how long the last seed of batches of oats, rutabaga, cucumber, beet, or tomato would stay alive if stored at the optimum constant water content and optimum temperature in absence of oxygen. No doubt the period would be long. Seeds of Long Life Duration There are several records of seeds that remained alive after being kept in seed cupboards or herbaria for a long time. The most interesting record of this sort is that of Becquerel because of the great life duration of some of the seeds he studied. He had access to a batch of old seeds in a storage room in the National Museum of Paris. The time of collection of these seeds varied from 1819 to 1853. He ran germination tests on these seeds in 1906 and again in 1934. For the 1934 test, Humbert and Merman furnished him about 20 seeds of Cassia multijuga which were collected in 1776. These seeds were all hard- coated, so they demanded special treatment. They were sterilized, the coats broken, and put to germinate in tubes TABLE II Becquerel's Record of Old Seeds Date Seeds grow- Seeds grozv- Determined Probable Macrobiotic species collected ing in 1906 ing in 1934 longez'ity longevity Mimosa gloincrala Forsk. 1853 5 out of 10 5 out of 10 81 years 221 years Melilotus Intra Gueld 1851 3 " " 10 0 " " 10 55 " — Astragalus massilieusis Lam. 1848 0 " " 10 1 " " 10 86 " 100 years Cytisus austriacus Linn. 1843 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 63 " — ± avatcra Psendo- olbia Dcsf. 1842 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 64 " — Dioclca pauciflora Rushy 1841 1 " " 10 2 " " 10 93 " 121 years Ervum Lens Linn. 1841 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 65 " — Trifolium arvense Linn. 1838 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 68 " — Leucaena Icucoccphala Linn. 1835 2 " " 10 3 " " 10 99 " 155 years Stachvs neltctifolia Dcsf. 1829 1 " " 10 0 " " 10 77 " — Cytisus biflorus L'Herit. 1822 2 " " 10 0 " " 10 84 " — Cassia bica/ tsularis Linn. 1819 3 " " 10 4 " " 10 115 " 199 years Cassia multijuga Rich. 1776 — 2 " " 2 158 " — 31 under sterile conditions at 28° C. The seed stock was considered so precious that only ten of each sort were used for the test. Of Cassia multijuga only two seeds were used. Table II shows the results obtained for the 13 kinds, showing germination in either the 1906 or the 1934 test. In the last column Becquerel estimates the probable life span of several of the seeds, based on the data for the two tests. All these seeds are Leguminosae, except those of Lavatera ( Malvaceae) and Stachys ( Labiatae). The seeds of Cassia multijuga germinated after 158 years of storage. This exceeds the former records of Robert Brown for Nelumbium speciosum2 from the British Museum, which were 150 years; also the records of Ewart for Goodia lotifolia and Hovea hetero-phylla, which were 105 years. Becquerel believes the long life span in all these seeds is made possible by impermeability of the coats, which prevents any exchange of gases or water between the embryo and endosperm and the outside atmosphere, and by the high degree of desiccation, 2 to 5 per cent moisture, and absence of oxygen in which the embryos exist within the hard coats. Later work shows that hard seeds of Albizzia julibrissiit in the British Museum ( 4) were alive after 149 years and seeds of Nelumbium ( Robert Brown's collection) after 250 years of storage. It is interesting that the seeds that remained alive so long in seed cupboards and herbaria had hard coats which give to the living parts of the seeds two conditions which we have mentioned as good storage conditions for long life span, namely, low constant moisture and low oxygen pressure. Perhaps neither of these was at the optimum and of course these seeds did not have the advantage of low constant temperatures. Life Span of Seeds in Soil There is little doubt of Ohga's claim of great age of the Nelumbo nucifera seeds excavated from a naturally drained lake bed in Manchuria. The seeds were buried about 1.5 meters deep in a layer of grav mud covered in turn by a layer of peat and a layer of loess. The eroding river which drained the lake has now cut a channel through the lake bed about 13 meters deep. Since there were no Nelumbo plants growing in the region, and the seeds were buried so deep, Ohga concludes that the seeds were from plants growing in the lake before it was drained. Judging from the rate at which the river is eroding its bed, the age of the trees growing on the land since drainage of the lake, and the records of a family that has been farming the drained lake bed for several generations, Ohga concludes , that the seeds have been buried for at least 120 years and more likely for 200 to 400 years. These seeds are hard- coated and those that were 2 Nelumbium speciosum and Nelumbo nucifera are synonyms, and both are synonymous with Nelumbium Nelumbo Karst. 32 excavated had not absorbed water. They gave 100 per cent germination when the coats were broken so the seeds could swell. Since these seeds did not swell naturally, the retention of vitality in the soil was not unlike that of hard seeds in herbaria and seed cupboards except for lower and more nearly constant temperature which was provided by deep burial. This condition would of course favor longevity. We noted above that Nelumbo seeds in the British Museum retained their viability for 250 years. On the other hand, the hard coats in moist soil are more subject to attack by bacteria and fungi. Indeed, Ohga noted that the epidermis and the outer portion of the palisade layer in these old seeds were eaten away. As soon as the corrosion reaches the " light line" of the palisade layer ( this is the inner limit of impermeability) these seeds swell, germinate, and the seedlings perish due to the deep burial. It is likely that this had been occurring with many of the seeds through the centuries so that only those with more resistant coats were left in the seed bed. Some seeds that absorb water remain in the soil intact and viable for many years. In 1879 Dr. Beal of East Lansing, Michigan, buried 20 sets of seeds as follows: 50 seeds each of 20 kinds of plants were mixed with sand and placed in pint bottles, and the 20 uncorked bottles were buried in sandy soil 20 inches deep with the mouths tilted downward to avoid TABLE HI BealV Buried Shells— Results of All Germination Tests to Date Plus Sign Indicates Germination 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th 30th 35th 40th 50th 60th Name of species yr. vr. yr. yr. yr. yr. vr. yr vr yr tested 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 1914 1920 1930 1940 Aiuaranthus retrofiexus Ambrosia elatior Brassica nigra Broinus seca/ inns Bursa Bitrsa- pastoris Erechtitcs hieracifolia Chamaesyee iiiacuhia Lepidium ; irginieum Agrostcimua Githago Authemis Cotula Mak- a rotundifolia Oenothera biennis Planfar/ o nuijor Polygonum Hydro piper Porhtlaca oleracea Rum ex crispus Chaetochloa lutesccns Alsinc media Trifolium rc/> ens Verbascum Thapsus Verbascum Blattaria + 0 0 0 + 0 0 4- 0 + 4- + 0 0 0 +++ 0 + 4- 0 + 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 4- 4- ? 4+- 0 •? + 0 + 0 + 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 ++ 4- + j _ 4- i-- 0 4- 4- 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 0 4- 4- 0 4- 4- 4- 0 4- 0 4- + 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 + 0 4- 0 4- 0 4- 4- 4- 4- 4- 0 0 + 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 0 ? 6 4- + + 0 0 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 4- 0 ? 6 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 4- 4- 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 4- 0 4- 4- 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4- 0 4- 0 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 4- 0 0 0 0 4- 33 TABLE IV Seeds Alive After 60 Years' Burial Number of Percentage of Name of plant individuals germination 1930 1940 1930 1940 Rumex crispus 26 2 52 4 Oenothera biennis 19 12 38 24 Verbascum Blattaria 31 34 62 68 Percentage of all seeds buried still germinating: 4.8%. filling with water. It was originally planned to take up a bottle every 5 years for vitality tests so that the experiment would extend over a period of 100 years. So many seeds were still alive at the 40- year period that it was decided to test the other 12 samples at 10- year periods, thus extending the experiment over a total period of 160 years. Table III shows the seeds some of which were alive at each period of test, and Table IV lists the three kinds of seeds that had lived 60 years in the soil, along with the percentage still intact and alive. In 1902 the U. S. D. A. buried many replicates of seeds of 107 different kinds of plants, wild and cultivated. The seeds were planted in soil in flower pots and triplicate pots buried at three different depths in the soil. The last report published was for the 20- year period and for that period the results confirm the findings of Beal for weed seeds. Seeds of many of the cultivated plants, such as cereals and vegetable garden plants, were dead before 20 years of burial with most of them dying within 1 year, probably due to lack of dormancy and prompt germination. A percentage of seeds of certain cultivated plants— timothy, Kentucky blue grass, clovers, beet, tobacco, celery, and black locust— were alive after 20 years' burial. Depth of burial had little effect on longevity. Seeds with Greater Longevity in Soil than in Air Storage As we have seen above, seeds of most cultivated plants remain intact and alive much longer in dry storage than in moist soil. According to the records, this is true of seeds of some wild plants. On the other hand, it has been shown for seeds of a number of wild plants that they live much longer in soil outside than they do in dry storage inside. Table V shows this relation for 13 different kinds of seeds. Recorded life span of these seeds in vseed cupboards is compared with the recorded life span in the buried seed experiments of Beal and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Very recent work by Kjaer confirms this conclusion. In 5- year tests he found that the seeds of the following retained their vitality in soil better than in dry storage: Polygonum tomentosum, 20 vs. 0 per cent; Thlaspi anvusc, 87 vs. 1 per cent; Vicia hirsuta, 50 vs. 5 per cent; Daucus carota, 34 TABLE V Comparative Life Span of Certain Seeds in Dry Storage and in Soil Life span in soil and per Life span in dry storage cent germination according Species of seeds according to Ezvart to Beal and U. S. D. A. Amaranthus graechaus 7 spp., less than 15 yrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 66% Apium graveolens Less than 10 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 10.5% Chenopodium album Less than 20 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 65.5% Datura Stramonium Less than 15 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 78% Nicotiana tabacum 6 spp., less than 10 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 56% Oenothera biennis Less than 15 yrs. Be^ l, 50 yrs., 38% ; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 87.5% Plantago major Less than 10 vrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 10%; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 83.5% Poa pratensis 5 spp., less than 12 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 18.5% Polygonum Hydropiper \ ,, , , ., fBeal, 50 yrs., 4% Polygonum persicaria f 15 s p p " less t h a n 15 y r s ' [ U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 55% Portulaca oleracca Less than 15 vrs. Beal, 40 yrs., 2%; U. S. D. A., 20 yrs. 38% Verbascum Blattaria Less than 15 yrs. Beal, 50 yrs., 62% Verbascum Thapsus Less than 15 yrs. U. S. D. A., 20 yrs., 92.5% 43 vs. 10 per cent; Plantago major, 30 vs. 0 per cent; Cirsium arvense, 55 vs. 0 per cent. He reports Dorph- Petersen's results with seeds of Sinapis arvensis buried 10 years 87 per cent germination, dry stored 21 per cent; buried 18 years 17 per cent, dry stored 0 per cent. Avery and Blakeslee ( 1) state that Datura seeds stored in the laboratory are all dead after 9 or 10 years but Datura seeds buried in the soil outside ( U. S. D. A. buried seeds) still show 97.5 per cent germination after 39 years. The fact that seeds of some wild plants remain in the soil for long periods in a dormant viable condition means that the soil is always well stocked with seeds which are capable of germination when the soil is disturbed. This assures the persistence of the species. It also makes the task of the farmer and gardener in fighting weeds difficult, for when the soil is once well stocked with seeds it takes years of cultivation for the complete germination and final destruction of the weeds. While the old imbibed seeds in the soil are of necessity dormant, or they would have germinated, the dormancy in the main is due to a rather delicate equilibrium that is overcome by exposure to light, by fluctuating temperatures of the top soil, or even by mechanical disturbance or better oxygen supply. Disturbing dormant weed seeds in soil starts them to germinate. Many of the seeds just mentioned as living longer in soil than in dry storage absorb water. Imbibed seeds of course respire so there is danger of exhaustion of stored foods. Barton, for seeds, and Denny, for gladiolus corms, have shown that in the soil these dormant organs curtail respiration greatly. This reduces the rate of exhaustion of stored foods and thus may enable them to live much longer. 35 Why Do Seeds in Storage Finally Die? We have seen that some seeds in air storage are killed by moderate desiccation. It is probable that many seeds in the soil that swell up and remain dormant die because the stored foods are used up in respiration. Several explanations have been offered for the final death of seeds in dry storage. Among these are exhaustion of stored foods or enzymes. These explanations are doubtful for foods are little exhausted in dry storage though they may be denatured to a degree and dry seeds are poor in enzymes— the enzymes are largely formed by the embryo or living tissue after germination starts. A number of other explanations have been offered. The one that seems most likely is that the delicate mitotic mechanism of the embryo cells degenerates so that normal cell division and growth can no longer occur. Avery and Blakeslee ( 1) noted that Datura seeds degenerate much faster in dry storage than in the soil. They also show a much higher mutation rate in dry storage. The changes in the nuclei that lead to mutations may be the changes that lead to death if they go far enough. If space permitted, other evidence could be furnished for this explanation of age- degeneration of seeds. Summary We have seen that some seeds live for only a few hours or days when exposed to the air, while others live for much more than a century under the same conditions. Cereals and seed of many other farm and garden plants do not live beyond 25 years in ordinary air storage. This disposes of the mummy wheat fable. The life span of seeds of medium life duration can be greatly lengthened by proper storage conditions. For longest life, seeds that will withstand drying should be dried to as low a water content as possible without injury and kept in sealed storage at a low temperature in absence of oxygen. Hard- coated seeds which do not permit an exchange of air or water with the atmosphere and bear little water have been known to live well over a century in seed closets— Nelumbium 250 years in a herbarium. Hard- coated seeds live in the soil for long periods or until the coats become pervious to water. Some weed seeds that swell readily remain in the soil dormant and viable for more than 60 years. A number of weeB seeds live much longer in the moist soil in nature than they do in dry storage. It has been suggested that age- degeneration of dry seeds is due to gradual degeneration of the nuclear mechanism which leads to mutation in the earlier stages and later to death of the seeds. • « -<£ » For references to the literature cited in this article, see page 48. ORCHIDS OF FLORIDA SOME OF THE EPIDENDRUMS AND OTHER EPIPHYTES Vanilla fjlanifolia / Brassia caudata*- 1 <"<• » - All illustrations used in this and the accompanying plate have en ta\ en from paintings made for Addisonia, where four . ve already appeared as Plates 214, 273, 437 and 607. ^ A& A - ^ B. tampense 38 The & piphytic Orchids of Florida By Alex D. Hawkes IN the Florida peninsula, more than a third of the native orchids live in the trees. They do not exist on trees as parasites, as many people think, but rather they perch there like strange and colorful birds and live as epiphytes, or plants upon plants. Instead of drawing their sustenance from the ground, as do the terrestrial or earth- dwelling orchids, these epiphytes simply sit on the trees and secure most of their nourish^ merit from the air and rain. Their thick, white, spongy roots fasten the plants securely to the tree and absorb minerals from the water which pours on them from above and from the debris which usually lodges near their bases. Epiphytic orchids have highly specialized organs and are able to exist for long periods under the most adverse conditions. Besides developing fleshy roots adapted to procuring water for the plant, orchids usually have thick leathery leaves capable of storing large amounts of liquid, thus enabling them to survive during prolonged dry seasons. Many of the epiphytic species, in addition, have specially thickened stems, called pseudo-bulbs, which also store water for the plant. Some of the tropical species grow attached to hard rocks, fully exposed to the blazing sun and torrential rains, and thus furnish an excellent example of the fact that these plants are epiphytes, not parasites. If these orchids were parasitic and therefore required the absorption of food from a living host, those which live on stones would certainly have long since died. Most of the orchids in tropical countries grow either in trees or on rocks as epiphytes. Florida, however, the most tropical state in the union, has only a scant 29 species of its orchid flora living in this way. The remaining 65% of the 84 native species are either terrestrials or saprophytes. Occasionally, a stray plant of the epiphytic group finds its way to a congenial spot on the ground and continues to thrive there, and some of the terrestrials get up into the trees, but these will be mentioned later in this paper. Most of the 14 genera of epiphytic orchids found in Florida are represented only by a single species, but Epidendruni, Oncidium. and Vanilla all have several different plants indigenous to the area. The first genus has a total of 10 native species, and is therefore the third largest group of Florida orchids, the first being the terrestrial genus Spiranthes, with 15 native species and varieties, and the second another ground- dwelling group, Habenaria. which has 12 Floridan representatives. The two most widely distributed species of Epidendruni in the state are the Florida butterfly orchid, E. tampense, and E. conopscum, which has 39 no widely used common name. On the mainland the butterfly orchid is restricted to this one state, but it occurs in more robust phases off the coast in the Bahamas and Cuba. Epidendruni conopseum, which is more northern in its distribution, is the only epiphytic orchid found outside of Florida in the entire country. Very common in the central and much of the northern part of the state, it has also been found in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. While looking for orchids in the jungles of central Florida, I have found specimens of this plant as much as five feet long and four feet wide, almost covering the trunks of huge old oak trees. When these plants are in flower, there are absolutely thousands of blossoms, and they perfume the jungle for some distance with their distinctive honey odor. Quite frequently these large plants are impossible to collect, because of the hordes of large ferocious ants which build their nests under the roots and rhizomes of the orchid. The insects protect the orchid from marauders and in turn receive shelter from the rain and sun. Since epiphytic orchids in general are lovers of the tropics, the majority of those that dwell naturally in Florida are to be found in the southern, warmer portion of the peninsula. In addition to the previously noted pair, the following species of Epidendruni are to be seen in the lower part of the state: E. anceps, E. Boothianum, E. coehlcatum var. triandrum ( which is found only in southern Florida and no place else in the world), E. difforme, E. nocturnum, E. pygmaeum, E. rigidum, and E. strobilif erum. These plants usually grow on large trees in rather shady woods, where they frequently form huge clusters, several species often being found intermingled. Many of them have beautiful and interesting flowers, and several, such as E. tampense, E. difforme, and E. nocturnum, emit a delightful perfume, especially at night. Very few people realize that the vanilla extract of the kitchen shelf is the product of an orchid, Vanilla planifolia, made by crushing the seed capsules after they have been cured. Florida is fortunate enough to have this interesting vanilla- producing species growing wild in the extreme southern tip of the peninsula, though it is very rare there. The plant forms a rather long fleshy vine which clambers over low shrubs and up trees in the swamps and jungles. In addition to the widely known commercial one, three other species of this genus are known from southern Florida. Vanilla Eggersii, V. phaeantha, and V. articulata have also been reported, but, except for V. Eggersii, they are all extremely rare. The rather large and very beautiful flowers of V. Eggersii last less than a single day. The genus Oncidium is also represented by four species in the Florida orchid flora: O. carthaginense, O. floridannm, 0. guttatum, and O. varicgatum. The second species is one of the few members of the Orchid family which is found only in Florida and not any place else. It is a 40 fairly showy plant, usually found growing in rich moist earth or on rotting logs, but sometimes on trees, expanding its medium- sized yellow and brown flowers on tall, arching spikes. Oncidium carlhaginense and 0. guttatum are both commonly known as " mule ears," because of the large, erect, leathery leaves. Both species bear very long, usually arching spikes of rather small brownish or purplish flowers which are so numerous as to make these two among the showiest of our native epiphytic orchids. For the average person it is frequently extremely difficult to believe that a certain insignificant weedy- looking plant is a member of the famed and exotic Orchid family. The two native species of the genus Campylocen-trum are particularly good examples of this class. These tiny orchids to the uninitiated certainly do not even resemble anything in the vegetable kingdom known to the ordinary flower grower, but would seem to make better bait for fish than plants worthy of cultivation. Both species consist of a tangled mass of fleshy greenish- grey roots sprawling over small twigs and branches of relatively smooth- barked trees. In C. porrectum there springs from the approximate center of this pile of Medusa- like roots a tiny irregular spike bearing two or three minute greenish flowers which even when in full bloom seem to be mere buds. If one looks at one of these wee blossoms under a lens, however, the " bud" resolves itself into a perfect little orchid of very interesting structure. The other Florida species in this fascinating and unusual genus is Campyloceutrum pachyrrhizuni. When measured side by side, the name is sometimes almost as long as the plant itself. The inflorescence is shorter than that of C. porrectum, although the plant itself is considerably larger, and bears a zigzag bunch of tinv. somewhat bell- shaped, green flowers. The remaining nine indigenous genera all consist of a solitary species in Florida, but all of them have several or many more species found outside of this area. Of these nine plants, one of the most interesting is the totally leafless Polyrrhiza Lindenii, a species which greatly resembles a large Campylocentrum in vegetative habit. In addition to being a leafless species, it bears the distinction of having the largest flowers of all the native orchids, including both epiphytes and terrestrials. These blossoms, which are green and white and very fragrant, are borne singly on long, jointed spikes which arise from the center of the cluster of roots. In large specimens the flowers measure up to nine inches long and about four inches across. They are of very peculiar structure and on first glance seem to belong to the animal rather than the vegetable kingdom. One of the commonest of all epiphytic orchids in many parts of southern Florida is Polystachya luteola. a medium- sized plant with branching spikes of very small, fragrant, yellowish- green flowers. This species is of particular interest to botanists because it has probably the largest distribution of any orchid. The plant ranges from southern Florida over most of FOUR OF FLORIDA'S TREE- DWELLING ORCHIDS 42 tropical America, and is also found in several localities in the eastern tropics, notably the Mascarene Islands, Ceylon, and the Philippines. Of all the native epiphytic orchid plants, Cyrtopodium punctatum attains the largest size. The pseudobulbs are massive and sometimes attain a length of three feet and a thickness of four inches. These huge bulbs earn for the plant two of its vernacular names of " cigar orchid" and " cow's-horn orchid," but the name of " big fish orchid" comes from the sharp points which remain attached to the bulbs when the leaves fall, and " bee-swarm orchid" refers to the inflorescence. The yellow flowers, spotted with red- brown, are rather large and are borne profusely on long branched scapes which reach a height of about three feet. This species usually grows in cypress swamps, which are often called " hammocks" here in Florida, where it frequently forms huge masses, generally growing near the tops of the trees. The Orchid family is divided into a great many groups which include genera and, in turn, species of fairly close relationship. Of these sections, one of the largest and most complex is the strictly neotropical sub- tribe Pleurothallidinae. In our Florida orchid flora two species of this group, representing two different genera, are very rarely found in the extreme southern part of the peninsula. Pleurothallis gelida, the commoner of the two, is a rather large plant bearing long arching racemes of tiny bell- shaped yellowish flowers. The racemes arise from the base of a single large fleshy paddle- shaped leaf at the top of a slender stem. The other native species of this group, Lcpanthopsis melanantha, is an exceedingly rare and very small plant with tiny red- purple flowers. It has been found mostly in the Big Cypress Swamp, where so many of our rare and little- known orchids live. Sometimes on trees or vines in southern Florida, one will find an unusual fleshy- leaved orchid with its myriads of slender white roots tightly wrapped around the branch to which it clings. Perhaps this plant will be in flower ; a rather tall spike waves in the breeze, at the top of which are arranged a large number of somewhat triangular- shaped, white blossoms, that are frequently marked with light or dark purple on the lip. This is Ionopsis utricular* aides, one of the most beautiful of all our native epiphytes, but now unfortunately a rather rare plant. This is another species with a large distribution, but since it is confined to this hemisphere, it does not approach Polystachya luteola in the immensity of its range. Deep in the heart of the Everglades there are localities in which this beautiful epiphyte covers huge grapevine lianas from top to bottom and carpets the adjoining trees with great masses of plants. It must be a beautiful sight to see an area like this during the blooming season, with thousands of the white flowers scattered through the dense jungle growth. Although not even in the same sub- tribe with it, the genus Macradenia is fairly closely related to Ionopsis. Our native species, if. lutescens. is 43 a medium- sized plant with a generally pendent raceme of yellowish flowers spotted on the inside with dull brown or purple. It seems to be excessively rare, but has been found in the Big Cypress Swamp and other localities in the extreme southern part of the state. One of the most spectacular and beautiful of our native epiphytic orchids is the very variable spider orchid, Brassia caudata. In the phase which is found in southern Florida, where it is very rare, the plant is large, with big flattened pseudobulbs and long spikes of spidery yellow flowers that are spotted with brown and that have a foetid odor. The blossoms last several weeks in perfection. Even with our native orchids, we occasionally find a species that is very difficult to grow under artificial conditions. Such a plant is the rare Maxillaria crassifolia; it is usually found in the Big Cypress Swamp, where it frequently grows as a terrestrial plant. Under cultivation it usually grows much better if treated in this way instead of as an epiphyte. At first glance this species certainly does not resemble an orchid, but looks much more like a small iris, if out of flower. The plant consists of irregular fans of fleshy leaves without any visible pseudobulbs. The blossoms appear singly on short stems near the base of the plant, are yellow in color, and do not open completely. It is not a particularly beautiful plant, but the flowers are very interesting if studied closely. Several of the so- called " terrestrial" species occasionally exceed their territory and get up into the trees, thus becoming epiphytic or semi-epiphytic in habit. Usually these plants are found in cavities or crevices that have filled with humus or other debris which gives them all the nourishment they need. Chief among the species of this class, intermediate between the terrestrials and the epiphytes, are Liparis data and Bletia tuberosa. Many more of the normally ground- dwelling species, however, have been found growing in this manner. And now we have finished with the epiphytic orchids of Florida— or should I say " finished" ? For these interesting air- plants may be studied for years and years without learning everything about them. Orchids are perhaps the most famed and yet most misunderstood of all plants, and if one delves into their history a little, a fascinating subject is revealed. We have the material for this study in our own country, growing wild in the southernmost state of Florida, where strange and beautiful orchids flourish in the tropical jungles and hammocks, for all to see and admire. These are orchids at their best— wild ones at home. Unfortunately many of the more showy species of our native orchids are rapidly being brought perilously close to the point of extinction, and since orchids take so very long to reproduce themselves from seed, a great deal of temperance in orchid collecting must be observed. Otherwise our Florida epiphytic orchids will go the way of so many of the beautiful wild plants of this nation. 44 Current Literature* At a Glance New Cactus Genus. In the December number of the Cactus and Succulent Journal, E. J. Alexander describes a new genus in the Cactaceae, from a plant collected in 1939 by Thomas MacDougall, with whom he is now exploring in Mexico. Lobeira is the new genus and Mac Doug allii the specific name accorded to the novelty, which somewhat resembled an epiphyllum until it bloomed with large silky flowers of mallow- purple. Mr. Alexander named the genus for Senora Lobeira ( pronounced lo- i/ ay- rah) who was growing the plant in her garden from material brought to her by a native from nearby Cerro Hueitepec. Araliads and Umbellifers. The latest issue of North American Flora, Part 1 of Vol. 28B, contains the Araliaceae by Albert C. Smith and part of the treatment of the Umbelliferae by Mildred E. Mathias and Lincoln Constance. Brittonia. The two numbers of Brittonia which appeared in September ( Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. 5) contain studies in and of the genera Schisms, Lotus, Cornus, Erigeron, Carex, Scirpus, Strychnos. Sedum, Phlox, and others, in addition to miscellaneous papers bv E. D. Merrill, Charles L. Gilly, Rogers McVaugh, Otto Degener. John D. Dwyer, and Arthur Cronquist. Western Nature Studies. Margaret McKenny is the author of a loose- leaf book of Washington Nature Notes published by tlie Washington Book Society in Otyvnpia, where she has been engaged in presenting nature study radio programs for children. Trees, flowers, mushrooms, birds, and animals are treated and all are illustrated, many of them with her own photographs. Notebooks and Checklists. Published a generation and more ago, the numerous notebooks and checklists of plants and animals issued by the Slingerland- Com-stock Co, in Ithaca, N. Y., are still being made available to nature- study groups and individuals, Included in these pocket-size booklets are simple guides to mosses, * All publications mentioned here— and many others— may be found in the Librarv of the Botanical Garden, in tlu- Museum Building. trees, wild flowers, and ferns. There is also a plant notebook, containing questions with spaces for their answers and some drawings to be filled in, and a pocket- size folio of outline drawings of 98 wild flowers on watercolor paper. Day- Length for Beans. Whether the days are long or short may affect the form of the plant or the flowering and fruiting of beans and other legumes, according to studies by H. A. Allard and W. J. Zaumeyer, published as Technical Bulletin No. 867 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. While the majority of beans grown in the vegetable garden are day- neutral, these investigators found, the semi- pole varieties would become bushy on short photoperiods and twining on the longer ones. Plants belonging to other leguminous genera exhibited different reactions, and species of Phaseolus native to the equatorial zone refused to flower under the longer midsummer days at Washington, D. C. Notes, News, and Comment Surinam J'isitors. Lieutenant Lisa Stahel, who is the wife of Dr. Gerold Stahel, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station in Paramaribo, Surinam, and the author of several articles that have appeared in this Journal, brought some of her group of 20 Surinam girls to the New York Botanical Garden Dec. 29, to see the conservatory displays and to view some of the kodachrome pictures taken by Dr. Bassett Maguire in Surinam last year. Mrs. Stahel, who is commanding officer in Paramaribo for the Netherlands West Indian Woman's Army Auxiliary Corps, was in New York for about two weeks on her way to the Far East. The score of young women accompanying her had all volunteered for service with the Netherlands Army Medical Corps in Asia. Annual Meeting. New Corporation members elected at the annual meeting of the New York Botanical Garden Jan. 16 in the office of President Joseph R. Swan are William H. Bell. President of the American Cyanamid Company; Mrs. Melvin Sawin, who became a member of the Garden's Advisory Council last year; 45 Manfred Wahl, retired industrialist of Philadelphia and a sustaining member of the Garden; and Alain C. White of Litchfield, Conn., also a sustaining member and the author of several notable books on succulent plants. All officers were re- elected, and the seven board members whose terms were expiring were re- elected for another three- year period. They are Arthur M. Anderson, Pierre Jay, Clarence McK. Lewis, E. D. Merrill, Henry de la Montagne, Francis E. Powell, Jr., and William J. Robbins. New committee appointments made were William Felton Barrett on the City Relations committee with Henry de Forest Baldwin and Mrs. Harold I. Pratt, and Francis E. Powell, Jr., on the Finance committee with Pierre Jay and H. Hobart Porter. Mrs. Robert H. Fife read the annual report of the Advisory Council. Among the out- o f- town members of the Board and Corporation who came to New York for the meeting were E. C. Auchter, Research Administrator, U. S. D. A. Agricultural Research Administration, of Washington, D. C, and E. D. Merrill, Administrator of Botanical Collections, Harvard University H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., of Caracas, Venezuela, also attended the meeting. Dr. Robbins interrupted the reading of his annual report with a demonstration of the significance of herbarium specimens, showing examples of several " lost" plants that have lately been rediscovered and giving the history of several specimens taken from the herbarium, some of them gathered in the early part of the 19th century. The report in full will be published in the spring as a supplement to the Journal. Robert T. Morris. Hailed as " one of America's first great modern surgeons," Dr. Robert T. Morris died at Stamford. Conn., Jan. 9 at the age of 87. He had been a member of the Corporation of the New York Botanical Garden for 20 years, and from his home, Merribrook Farm, in Stamford, he had written many letters of comment and query to the Garden. Dr. Morris was the author of noteworthy scientific and popular books chiefly dealing with medicine, one of the last of which was " Fifty Years a Surgeon," published in 1934. Nut- growing was one of his occupations on his 430- acre farm, which was also a wild- life sanctuary and arboretum, and he wrote a book on this subject in 1921. He is credited with bringing many modern ideas into the practice of surgery, championing antiseptic methods and initiating techniques which greatly reduced the death rate in operations. One of the four books he published in 1918 was " Microbes and Men" in which he attempted to " diagnose" famous writers from their works. Conference. Dr. H. A. Gleason spoke on " A Collection of Melastomes from Colombia" at the monthly conference of the staff and registered students of the Garden Jan. 18, and Dr. A. B. Stout on " Intra- specific Incompatibilities in Relation to Populations" the same day. The melastome collection consists of some 300 specimens sent from Colombia by Jose Quatrecasas. Lectures. Two Garden Club Affiliates hearing talks by members of the Botanical Garden's staff last month were the Little Gardens Club of Greenwich Village, where Elizabeth C. Hall spoke on " The Literature of Gardening" Jan. 8 and the Garden Club of Mamaroneck, N. Y., where Dr. H. W. Rickett spoke Jan. 29 on " Gardens of Cloister and Castle." Orchids. H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., who is a member of the Corporation, returned last month from Venezuela bringing the Garden a collection of 50 or more orchid plants which he had gathered in the wild. Visitors. Dr. Harold St. John, Professor of Botany in the University of Hawaii, who is returning from two years of cinchona exploration in Colombia, was at the Garden Jan. 22. Dr. Sterling Hendricks of the Division of Soils and Fertilizers, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Diseases, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, came to the Garden Dec. 28 to consult with Dr. William J. Robbins on hormones and growth substances. Among other visitors of recent weeks have been C. K. Tseng of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.; C. L. Huskins of McGill University, Montreal; Jack Ziffer, head of the department of zymomycology for Schenley Research Institute, Lawrence-burg, Ind.; S. H. Hutner of Haskins Laboratories; Cecil Yampolsky of New 46 York City; and Harvey Bassler of the American Museum of Natural History. Dean. Prof. E. W. Sinnott, who was a member of the Board of Managers of the New York Botanical Garden for seven years, until he left Columbia University in 1940 to go to Yale as Sterling Professor of Botany and Director of the Osborn Botanical Laboratories, has been appointed Dean of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, to succeed Prof. C. H. Warren upon his retirement at the end of the current academic year. Dr. Sinnott was the author, with Robert Bloch, of an article entitled " Luffa Sponges, A New Crop for the Americas," which appeared in this Journal in June 1943. Thomas Little. Superintendent of the estate of Col. Robert H. Montgomery at Cos Cob, Conn., Thomas Little died Jan. 19. For the past five years be had been an instructor in several of the courses in practical gardening given by the New York Botanical Garden, beginning with the Three- Day Short Course offered in the spring of 1941. Two years later he also was one of the six instructors on the roster for the new Three- Day Short Course in Vegetable Gardening. He was likewise one of the lecturers in the six- weeks' course in vegetable gardening presented by R. H. Macy & Co. under the supervision of the New York Botanical Garden in 1943, and in the afternoon and evening series of gardening lectures organized early in 1941 by the New York Times in co- operation with the New York Botanical Garden. In April 1944 Mr. Little gave one of the Garden's Saturday afternoon lectures, speaking on " Late Spring Work in the Vegetable Garden." On the Montgomery estate, where he had been superintendent for about IS years, Mr. Little had worked extensively in building up the collection of evergreens, for which the property was famous. He also won acclaim for his successful culture of many other kinds of plants, both outdoors and in the greenhouse. Trophy. George H. Gillies, Head Gardener for the Marshall Field estate and an instructor at the Botanical Garden, was awarded the silver trophy for 1944 by the Horticultural Society of New York. He had competed in all shows and monthly meetings during the year. Anti- hiotics. Jeane Onslow of the Institute of Pathology of Western Pennsylvania Hospital in Pittsburgh has come to the Botanical Garden to work for a month or two in the laboratory of Dr. William J. Robbins, to become acquainted with methods used in studying antibiotic substances produced by molds. H. H. Whetzel. For 43 years a member of the Department of Botany at Cornell University, Prof. H. H. Whetzel died after a long illness Nov. 30 at the age of 67. He was head of the department there from 1906 to 1922. A plant pathologist, he worked particularly on Botrytis and on Sclerotinia and its related genera, studying their taxonomy as well as the diseases they caused. Until the last few years he had been a frequent visitor to the New York Botanical Garden. In October 1942 he contributed an article to the Journal on his leading hobby of growing wild flowers from seed. He also contributed many papers to Mycologia and had worked on Sclerotinia for North American Flora, but this work was never finished. He was one of the founders of the Mycological Society of America. William T. Davis. An entomologist who had been a lifelong friend of Drs. N. L. Britton and Arthur Hollick, particularly in the early days when they were making some of their first botanical collections, died in the Staten Island Hospital Jan. 22 at the age of 87. He was William Thompson Davis. Though his primary interest was the cicadas of North America, he did considerable work on the local flora, and in years gone by was well known around the New York Botanical Garden. He published about 25 papers on native plants. Scirpus tatora. According to a letter received from Alan A. Beetle too late for making corrections in the January Journal, all species of Scirpus illustrated in his article, " Sedge Boats in the Andes," are S. tatora, the narrowly endemic sedge of the shores of Lake Titicaca. S. californicus. Dr. Beetle savs. is a more common, low- elevation relative. Lecturer. Rupert C. Barneby is giving the Saturday afternoon lecture Feb. 17 on " Plant Life of the Mediterranean Region." Mr. Barneby, who is a graduate 47 R E D C R O S S E X H I B IT I N C O N S E R V A T O R I ES rT", 0 aid the Red Cross in its spring campaign, the New York Botanical -*- Garden is staging in the conservatories in March a huge red cross of a newly patented blood- red azalea which has been named for Lambertus C. Bobbink. The background of the cross will be made of plants of a hardy white azalea named " Snow." There will also be a typical field dressing station of the Red Cross, designed after the stations that are being set up in the Philippines and other islands of the Far East, directly back of the battle lines. Plants that are native to these islands will be used for the surroundings of the station, and Red Cross nurses, with their customary field equipment, will be in attendance. The Bronx County Red Cross 1945 War Fund office is co- operating in arranging the exhibit. A special ceremony Sunday afternoon, March 4, will precede the opening of the display to the public. of Cambridge University, England, has done botanical exploring in the area. Frank E. Egler, who was originally scheduled for this program, was at last report at Camp Pickett in Virginia and said he was headed for southern Texas. Tropical Fruits, To illustrate the three talks given by Otto Degener in the current Saturday afternoon series on " Plants of the Regions Where our Men and Women are Serving," tropical fruits of many varieties were displayed on the stage of the lecture hall. The Garden is indebted for these to Dr. David Fair-child of Coconut Grove, Florida, to Edwin A. Menninger of Stuart, Florida, and to Dr. George D. Ruehle of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University at Homestead, Florida. Dancer. East Indian hand positions and movements which illustrate flowers, trees, vines, and other forms of plant life were demonstrated by Juana of the Ethnologic Dance Center in New York at the lecture on " Vegetation of India and Burma" given by Otto Degener at the Garden Feb. 3. A brief talk on the form and symbolism of the Hindu dance preceded the demonstration. Tlie program was concluded with a Burmese dance representing a flower swaying in the wind. Radio. The first broadcast in the New York Botanical Garden's next series over WNYC will have Mrs. Elizabeth Williams, a Red Cross overseas worker who has recently returned from two years of sen ice in the South Pacific, as the speaker. The program will be given March 9 at 3 : 30 p. m. Saturday Programs. The spring series of Saturday afternoon programs at the Garden will deal with " The Great Groups of Plants— How They Live from Year to Year." Speakers will be members of the staff. Starting March 17, the series will be preceded on March 10 and followed April 28 by a motion picture. 48 LITERATURE CITED In " Longevity of Seeds" by William Crocker Ap'pcaring on pages 25- 35 1. Avery, A. G., and A. F. Blakeslee. Mutation rate in Datura seed which had been buried 39 years. Genetics 28: 69- 70. 1943. 2. Crocker, William. Life- span of seeds. Bot. Review 4: 235- 274. 1938. 3 Life span of seeds. In Book of Boyce Thompson Institute. ( To be published later.) 4. Duration of viability in seeds. Gard. Chron. I l l : 234. 1942. 5. Robertson, D. W., and Anna M. Lute. Germination of the seed of farm crops in Colorado after storage for various periods of years. Jour. Agric. Res. 46: 455- 462. 1933. 6. Sifton, H. B. Longevity of the seeds of cereals, clovers, and timothy. Amer. Jour. Bot. 7: 243- 251. 1920. New Term Announced for Teachers' Course A SECOND term of study in ^ *• the course for New York City public school teachers, inaugurated last September at the New York Botanical Garden in co- operation with the Board of Education, will begin Feb. 21. While none of the work will duplicate that of the autumn term, neither series of talks and demonstrations is considered a prerequisite for the other. As before, the course will be in charge of Dr. E. E. Naylor, with the cooperation of Marvin M. Brooks, Director of School Gardens for the New York City Board of Education, and the majority of the sessions will be directed by them. In addition, one lecture each will be given by Dr. B. O. Dodge, T. H. Everett, and Elizabeth C. Hall of the Botanical Garden's staff. The course will occupy 15 successive Wednesday afternoons with the omission of April 4, meeting in the Museum Building from 4 to 6. It will comprise 30 hours of work, applicable toward alertness credit awarded to teachers by the Board of Education. Below is the tentative schedule of subjects. Feb. 21. Registration at Museum Building. 4 o'clock Trip to the Conservatories. 28. Garden Publications, Journals, Catalogues. Mar. 7. Tender Plants from Bulbs. Greenhouse Studies. 14. Soil Study and Weather. 21. Foliage Plants for the Class Room. Observations in the Greenhouses. 28. Cuttings & Problems of Propagation. Studies in the Propagating Houses, Apr. 11. Planning the Vegetable Garden. 18. Science in the Garden. 25. Early Spring Garden Plants. Seeds, Planting, Watering and Care. May 2. School Garden Management & Vandalism. 9. Later Garden Plantings. 16. Animal Life in the Garden. 23. Insect Pests & Diseases of Garden Plants. June 6. Garden Tour. Transplanting, Thinning, etc. 13. Note Books and Examinations. The fee for New York City teachers is $ 2. Dr. Naylor Miss Hall Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Dr. Naylor Mr. Everett Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Naylor Mr. Brooks Dr. Dodge Dr. Naylor \ Mrs. Thomson } Dr. Naylor THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Officers JOSEPH R. SWAN, President HENRY DE FOREST BALDWIN, Vice- president JOHN L. MERRILL, Vice- president ARTHUR M. ANDERSON, Treasurer HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE, Secretary Elective Managers E. G AUCHTER MRS. ELON HUNTINGTON H. HOBART PORTER WILLIAM FELTON BARRETT HOOKER FRANCIS E POWELL JR EnwiN DE T. BECHTEL PIERRE JAY ,, „ u ' T o ' ' HENRY F. DU PONT CLARENCE MCK. LEWIS M R S ' HAHOLD I. PRATT MARSHALL FIELD E. D. MERRILL WILLIAM J. ROBBINS REV. ROBT. I. GANNON, S. J ROBERT H. MONTGOMERY A. PERCY SAUNDERS Ex- Officio Managers FIORELLO H. LAGUARDIA, Mayor of the City of New York MARY E. DILLON, President of the Board of Education ROBERT MOSES, Park Commissioner Appointive Managers By the Torrey Botanical Club H. A. GLEASON By Columbia University MARSTON T. BOGERT MARCUS M. RHOADES CHARLES W. BALLARD SAM F. TRELEASE THE STAFF WILLIAM J. ROBBINS, P H . D . , SC. D. Director H. A. GLEASON, P H . D . Assistant Director and Curator HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE Assistant Director FRED J. SEAVER, P H . D . , SC. D. Head Curator A. B. STOUT, P H . D . Curator of Education and Laboratories BERNARD O. DODGE, P H . D . Plant Pathologist JOHN HENDLEY BARNHART, A. M., M. D. Bibliographer Emeritus H. W. RICKETT, P H . D . Bibliographer BASSETT MAGUIRE, P H . D . Curator HAROLD N. MOLDENKE, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Associate Curator ELIZABETH C. HALL, A. B., B. S. Librarian ELMER N. MITCHELL Photographer ROBERT S. WILLIAMS Research Associate in Bryology E. J. ALEXANDER, B. S. Assistant Curator and Curator of the Local Herbarium W. H. CAMP, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Assistant Curator FRANCES E. WYNNE, P H . D . Assistant Curator E. E. NAYLOR, P H . D . Assistant Curator ARTHUR CRONQUIST, P H . D . Assistant Curator SELMA KOJAN, B. S. Technical Assistant ROSALIE WEIKERT Technical Assistant CAROL H. WOODWARD, A. B. Editor of the Journal THOMAS H. EVERETT. N. D. HORT. Horticulturist G. L. WITTROCK, A. M. Custodian of the Herbarium OTTO DEGENER. M. S. Collaborator in Haimiian Botany A. J. GROUT, P H . D . Honorary Curator of Mosses ROBERT HAGELSTEIN Honorary Curator of Myxomycetes JOSEPH F. BURKE Honorary Curator of the Diatomaceae B. A. KRUKOFF Honorary Curator of Economic Botany ETHEL ANSON S. PECK HAM Honorary Curator, Iris and Narcissus Collections A. C. PFANDER Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds To reach the Botanical Garden, take the Independent Subway to Bedford Park Blvd. station; use the Bedford Park Blvd. exit and walk east. Or take the Third Avenue Elevated to the Bronx Park or the 200th St. station, or the New York Central to the Botanical Garden station. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Books* Booklets, and Special Numbers of the Journal An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown. Three volumes, giving descriptions and illustrations of 4,666 species. Second edition, reprinted. $ 13.50. Flora of the Prairies and Plains of Central North America, by P. A. Rydberg 969 pages and 601 figures. 1932. Price, $ 5.50 postpaid. The Bahama Flora by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Charles Frederick Millspaugh. 695 pages. Descriptions of the spermatophytes, pteridophytes, bryophytes, and thallophytes of the Bahamas, with keys, notes on explorations and collections, bibliography, and index. 1920. $ 6.25. North American Cariceae, by Kenneth K. Mackenzie, containing 539 plates of Carex and related plants hy Harry C. Creutzburg, with a description of each species. Indexed. 1940. Two volumes, 10^ 4 x 1 3 1 / inches; bound $ 17.50; unbound $ 15.50. Keys to the North American Species of Carex by K. K. Mackenzie. From Vol. 19, Part 1, of North American Flora. $ 1.25. Plants of the Holy Scriptures by Eleanor King, illustrated, and accompanied by a list of Plants of the Bible with quotations, in the March 1941 Journal. 15 cents. Food and Drug Plants of the North American Indian. Two illustrated articles by Marion A. 6? G. L. Wittrock in the Journal for March 1942. 15 cents. Vegetables and Fruits for the Home Garden. Four authoritative articles reprinted from the Journal, 21 pages, illustrated. Edited by Carol H. Woodward. 1941. 15 cents. The Flora of the Unicorn Tapestries by E. J. Alexander and Carol H. Wood' ward. 28 pages, illustrated with photographs and drawings; bound with paper. 1941. 25 cents. An Herbal. First published by Richard Banckes in London. 1525. Edited and transcribed into modern English with an introduction by Sanford V. Larkey, M. D., and Thomas Pyles. 200 pages, including facsimile of original. Prepared by Scholars' Facsimiles and Reprints. 1941. Price to members of the Garden, $ 2.50; to others, $ 3.50. Catalog of Hardy Trees and Shrubs. A list of the woody plants being grown outdoors at the New York Botanical Garden in 1942, in 127 pages with notes, a map, and 20 illustrations. 75 cents. Succulent Plants of New and Old World Deserts by E. J. Alexander. 64 pages, indexed. 350 species treated, 100 illustrated. Bound in paper. 1942. Second edition 1944. 50 cents. Periodicals Addisonia, annually, devoted exclusively to colored plates accompanied by popular descriptions of flowering plants; eight plates in each number, thirty- two in each volume. Now in its twenty- second volume. Subscription price, $ 10 a volume ( four years). Not offered in exchange. Free to members of the Garden. Journal of The New York Botanical Garden, monthly, containing news, book reviews, and non- technical articles on botany and horticulture. Subscription, $ 1 a year; single copies 15 cents. Free to members of the Garden. Now in its 45th volume. Mycologia, bimonthly, illustrated in color and otherwise; devoted to fungi, including lichens, containing technical articles and news and notes of general interest. $ 7 a year; single copies $ 1.50 each. Now in its thirty- sixth volume. Twenty- four Year Index volume $ 3. Brittonia. A series of botanical papers published in co- operation with the American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Subscription price, $ 5 a volume. Now in its fifth volume. North American Flora. Descriptions of the wild plants of North America, including Greenland, the West Indies, and Centra! America. 100 parts now issued. Not offered in exchange. Prices of the separate parts on request. Contributions from The New York Botanical Garden. A series of technical papers reprinted from journals other than the above. 25 cents each, $ 5 a volume. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden. A collection of scientific papers Contents and prices on request. |
|
|
|
A |
|
B |
|
C |
|
G |
|
J |
|
L |
|
M |
|
N |
|
P |
|
T |
|
|
|