Journal of the New York Botanical Garden

              JOURNAL
OF
THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
VOL. 46
No. 543
MARCH
1 9 4 5
PAGES
49- 72
JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
CAROL H. WOODWARD, Editor
MEMORIALS THAT LIVE
WHEN the present war is over we may expect, as after every conflict,
a mass movement for the erection of monuments. The men and
women who have served their country must be honored for their heroic
deeds and sacrifices.
As we look back on the monuments bequeathed to this generation from
earlier wars, we are faced with the realization that, though well intended,
they are often monstrous things, scarcely a credit to the taste or intelligence
of the donors.
A memorial should be a thing of permanent beauty. At the close of
the last world war a few inspired individuals strove for this ideal by having
trees planted as memorials to the men who had given their lives, and these
today, where they have been given proper care, have grown into magnificent
avenues or parks. But there are not enough of them, and there are far
too many guns and cannon- balls and crudely fashioned figures of inanimate
metal or stone.
Type of memorials that can become a source— as they are the result—
of inspiration and a means for pleasanter living are suggested in the poem
by Millicent Easter published on this page last month. In the few words:
" For all the Flyers . . . glorious trees!" there lies the germ of any number
of memorial projects, which might with equal suitability be carried out
with dogwoods or with oaks, with lilacs or roses or evergreens, or with
flowers such as chrysanthemums or annuals planted and cared for in a
public place.
A memorial created with living plants can serve as a model for the
community, to show the effect of well planted trees and shrubs and
flowers, while at the same time it helps to keep perpetually alive the brave,
youthful spirits of our men and women who have served and sacrificed.
For years extending far into the future, a living memorial can enhance
community or countryside and exalt the spirit of the people.
However, it will give such long- lasting pleasure only if kept at its best
from year to year. No garden flowers can be expected to perpetuate
themselves without a skilled hand to care for them, and few trees can be
expected to thrive without attention to their yearly needs.
Those groups of citizens who are planning war memorials will need to
think in positive terms about the future. If they are givingi consideration
to a " monument" of living plants, which is the ideal memorial, they must
provide for the permanent upkeep of those plants, either by a special
endowment or by arrangements with reliable authorities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
March 1945
FLORAL RED CROSS OF AZALEA " LAMBERTUS C. BOBBINK"
Cover photograph by Elmer N. Mitchell
A NOTE ON THE VEGETATION OF THE MEDITERRANEAN
LITTORAL Rupert C. Barneby 49
AIR PLANTS AND THEIR PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL E. E. Naylor 55
SPRING PROGRAMS AT THE GARDEN 66
BROADCAST W. D. Turner 67
NOTICES AND REVIEWS OF RECENT BOOKS 68
NOTES, NEWS, AND COMMENT 72
The Journal is published monthly by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York 58,
N. Y. Printed in U. S. A. Entered at the Post Office in New York, N. Y.. as second- class matter.
Annual subscription $ 1.00. Single copies IS cents. Free to members of the Garden.
JOURNAL
of
THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
VOL. 46 MARCH 1945 No. 543
QA zNote on the Vegetation of the
{ Mediterranean J^ ittoral
By Rupert C. Barneby
THE casual visitor to the Mediterranean, whatever his means of travel,
is apt to return home with the impression that the entire basin, whose
shores are lapped by the sparkling and seemingly tideless waters of the
Inland Sea, delights the year round in sunshine and the perfect resort
climate. This is a fallacy propagated by travel agencies and holiday litera­ture,
and is as much a fiction as the old story that it never rains in Miami
or Hollywood. The native, and also the traveler who visits the Mediter­ranean
out of season, has a different story to tell. He will have experi­enced
the searching and bitter blast of the BORA ( the Boreas of the
ancients), and the noxious vapors of the SIROCCO, the duststorms of Algeria
and the violence of the MISTSAL, the searing desert heat of southeastern
Spain and the chill winters of Athens. He will know that between the
Pillars of Hercules and the shores of Palestine, a distance of some 2,000
miles, there lies a diversified and broken region, embracing such contrasts
as the fertile VEGAS of Andalusia, the harsh, snowcapped peaks of the
Appenines and Asia Minor, the deserts of Murcia, where three years may
pass without a single shower, and the precipitous Adriatic coast where the
rainfall may exceed in a year that of watery London.
This is the first of a series of articles to appear in this lournal covering the Satur­day
lectures given during the winter of 1945 at the New' York Botanical Garden on
the plants of the regions where our men and women are serving. Another will deal
ivith the plant life of Alaska, " From the Alaska Highway to the Aleutians." This
will be done by Hugh M. Roup of the Arnold Arboretum, who spoke at the Garden
February 10. A scries of three descriptive articles by Otto Degener will cover briefly
some of the most common plants that are found in the tropics around the world.
49
50
But in spile of diversity in detail there is also a broad uniformity. The
Mediterranean climate, a term which has come to be applied to equable
climates throughout the world, does exist; for the moderating influence of
the sea provides insurance against those extremes of temperature experi­enced
on the great continental land- masses of the temperate zones. The
general maritime influence is felt everywhere, even though accidents of
terrain and exposure may vastly modify the normal balance. Since climate
is everywhere the chief factor determining the character and density of
vegetation, so in the Mediterranean basin the plant cover presents a broadly
uniform aspect, modified here and there by physiographic accident. In
this short note it will be impossible to examine the exceptional and the
extreme, and only a brief sketch of the prevailing vegetation can be
attempted.
In general, the vegetation of the Mediterranean is that of a dry region.
Even where abundant rainfall occurs in the fall and winter months, the
summers are hot and dry, and the few native deciduous trees are found
only along watercourses, in irrigated land, or in sheltered valleys. Arboreal
vegetation of any importance is entirely composed of Coniferae— pine,
cypress and juniper— and of evergreen oaks. In the days when the
Phoenicians were opening trade- routes into the west, the bays and
promontories which they skirted, even those along the now bare shores of
Africa, were clothed in green forests of Aleppo pine and ilex. But these
exist today only as remnants, in remote, sparsely settled regions or on
private estates from which the wood- cutter and the goat, that omnipresent
and omnivorous scourge of the Mediterranean, have been excluded. Sod-forming
grasses are rare or non- existent, true meadows occurring only
under irrigation or occasionally on saline flats along the immediate coast.
But perennial bunch- grasses, such as Andropogon species, with harsh dry
culms and of little nutrient value, as well as innumerable annual species,
mostly of extremely ephemeral duration, are everywhere apparent; while
Anmdo Dona. r, a tall, bamboo- like grass, the stems and leaves of which
are utilized as fishing- rods and for thatching the cabins of fishermen, is
characteristic of ditches near the coast.
Plant Inhabitants of the Maquis
Except for the relatively restricted areas of desert, the dominant natural
vegetation of the Mediterranean littoral is MAQUIS. This term, originally
applied to the especially abundant and luxuriant type of shrubbery which
is found on the island of Corsica, has been extended to cover the similar
association wherever it occurs, though the different peoples have their own
local names, such as MACCHIE in Italy or THRYGANA ( a slightly different
thing) in Greece. It may be compared with, and very closely corresponds
to, the CHAPARRAL of our southwestern states. In essence it is an associa­tion
of evergreen shrubs marked by the small, inrolled, varnished or densely
51
pubescent leaves, the thick, dry bark, and the tough, sometimes spinescent
twigs of the xerophyte. The component species of the maquis, its density
and average height, largely depend on the exposure and the composition of
the soil, and vary also in the different provinces of the Mediterranean. But
maquis in some form is always present, either as a pseudoclim'ax between
the primeval woodland and the cultures, or as a true climax on soils
unsuitable for pines or ilex. Among characteristic species belonging to
the maquis may be noted the numerous kinds of rock- rose, Cistus, with
their handsome white or pink roselike flowers; the dwarfer rock- roses
( Helianthcmum), which are also known as sun- roses; Rhus Cotinus,
similar to our native smoketrees; the mastic tree, Pistacia Lentiscus; the
various shrubs of Phillyrca; scrub- oak ( Quercus Ccrris) ; myrtle, jasmine,
bay ( Laurus nobilis); the wild olive, probably introduced by man, at least
in the west; the magnificent heathers ( Erica); the strawberry- trees
( Arbutus Lhicilo and Andrachnc) ; species of sagebrush ( Artemisia) ;
rosemary, lavender, and the kitchen sage. In the western basin the brooms
and gorses ( Ulcx, Cytisus and Spartium) are especially highly developed,
and in spring clothe the hillsides in brilliant gold. Over large areas of
the Balkan Peninsula, in very impoverished soil, the maquis is reduced to a
low scrub, a foot high or so, composed largely of thyme and other suf-fruticose
mints'. Many of the maquis shrubs, which form impenetrable
thickets or, perhaps more often, are spaced out and intermingled with
herbaceous plants or a scattering of live- oaks or pines, are glandular and
resinous, and the scent arising from them after rain embalms the air, and
when the wind is favorable can be smelt many miles out at sea. To this
zone of vegetation belongs the palmetto ( Chamaerops humilis), a dwarf
palm with scarcely any trunk and a tuft of fan- shaped leaves, most
characteristic of rocky pastures near the coast.
In clearings or intervals in the maquis there luxuriates a varied herbace­ous
flora, sometimes of great brilliance. Already in late winter the first
bulbous plants— asphodels, grape- hyacinths, squills, crocus, jonquils and
the delicate tazzetta narcissi are in bloom, while the buttercups and the
scarlet or multi- colored anemones, the cyclamens, and the charlocks with
their countless relatives of the Cabbage family, begin to decorate the hill­sides
and valley- floors. In spring and early summer these are joined and
replaced by the leguminous weeds— vetches, trefoils, medicks and rest-harrows
( Ononis) ; by the terresrrial orchids, by the parsleys ( Umbel-liferae)
which have supplied our table with many a succulent vegetable and
flavor— fennel and coriander, dill, cumin, carrot, parsnip and opopanax;
by the humble but already gaudy ancestors of our garden flowers, the
carnation ( Dianthus) ; also larkspur, stock, and snapdragon; and by Com­positae
in many species and genera. But by July the flowers have retreated
to the mountains, and little is left on the lower slopes but a few thistles and
robust mulleins ( Verbascum). their leaves coated in white dust.
52
Flora of the Sands and Rocks
Along the immediate shore of the Mediterranean, particularly where the
land rises at a gentle incline from the sea, there often lie extensive sand-dunes
with a specialized vegetation of their own. Here are found thickets
of the white broom ( Rctama monospcrma), planted as an ornamental in
California, and here and there occur open parklike groves of arborescent
junipers. In their shade, as well as in the open sand, partly stabilized
perhaps by the running roots of a maritime grass, one comes upon colonies
of the little annual Crucifer, Alaithiola maritima, which under cultivation
has become the " Virginia Stock"; and one also sees the white- felted
bushes of a rayless daisy ( Diolis candidissima), the sea eryngo ( Eryngium
maritimum), and the stately amaryllidaceous bulb, Pancratium maritunum,
with its umbels of white daffodil- like flowers. Back of the beach itself the
dune- flora merges insensibly with the maquis, or, where low- lying land
permits water to collect and form a partially saline lagoon, into an estuarine
vegetation dominated by fleshy- leaved Salicornia and a bewildering miscel­lany
of sea- lavenders (' Litnonium).
The Aiediterranean littoral is to a very large extent built of sedimentary
rocks, the commonest being a hard white limestone which weathers into
bold bluffs and terraces, into box- canyons, cliffs and GARRIGUES, which
lend the landscape a character of its own. and at the same time afford foot­hold
to many plants which without cultivation will grow nowhere but in
the crevices of virgin rock. It is to the cliffs that one must turn to find
the many species of Campanula, such as the favorite old pot- plant C. pyra-midalis,
the sweet sultans ( Ccntaurca. of the same genus as the annual
cornflower) with their handsome dissected leaves, the scabiosas, and the
rock cabbages, probable ancestors of all our domestic cabbages, cauliflowers
and broccoli. Almost every family of seed- plants at all highly developed in
the Mediterranean region has at least one member found only on calcareous
cliffs, where, protected from browsing animals, it lives isolated and secure,
becoming, like all hermits, vastly modified in the process.
The Mediterranean People and Their Crops
But this is the natural vegetation, the covering of wild and waste places,
and a quite small fraction of the whole. The Mediterranean basin supports
a dense and ancient human population which for uncounted centuries has
been busy changing, by culture and depredation, the natural face of the
earth. To gain an approximate idea of the primitive state of a Mediter­ranean
shore, it is necessary to travel to some remote cape on Sardinia,
Crete or the Peloponnesus, and even here the charcoal- burner and the
goatherd have gone before. To an enormous extent the vegetation and
landscape have been shaped and determined by the hand of man.
The peoples of the Mediterranean are frugal; they have to be, because of
the relative poverty of the natural resources. The areas which would
53
appear suitable for cultivation to an American farmer are small, few and
far apart. They are confined, in fact, to valleys where a river or stream
debouching from the mountains in the interior has carried down a sediment
of silt and soil and at the same time provides water for irrigation. The
Sahel of Algeria, the valleys of the Guadalquivir, the Rhone and the Nile
( though this is in reality a long oasis cut through pure desert) and of the
lesser streams, often mere torrent beds in summer, along the Italian and
Balkan coasts, offer these conditions and are intensively cultivated with
alfalfa, cereals, oranges, or vegetables similar to those grown in the sub­tropical
regions of the United States.
Outside these favored and fertile spots the earth is dry and stony, the
water supply meager and uncertain, and agriculture is an arduous profes­sion.
Centuries of deforestation and consequent erosion have denuded the
hills of their natural flesh and everywhere the bare bones of the earth
show through. The problem of growing anything on these barren slopes
has been solved by terrace cultivation, a process which more than anything
else has moulded the landscape of the Mediterranean region. Throughout
the littoral, and far inland, stone walls, following the contours of the hills,
have been built up in tiers along the hillsides, providing flat terraces which
catch and retain both soil and moisture and provide level ground for
cultivation. Each loose rock turned up by the plow or mattock is laid
aside and incorporated in the walls, and as these grow higher the pocket
of earth behind grows deeper.
Here it is possible to raise cereals and stone fruits such as the peach,
apricot, and almond; or, where water can be led by ACEQUIA along the
hillside, citrus and herbaceous vegetable will flourish. In the south of
France acres of terraced land are planted with roses, violets and lavender,
from which are distilled the essences used in perfumery. But by far the
greater area is devoted to those two staple crops, on which depends the
entire agricultural economy of the Mediterranean— the olive and the vine.
Indeed, so ubiquitous are the olive groves and vineyards that one might
truly claim that they form, even though artificially maintained and ever
prone to slip back into wasteland and eventually maquis, the commonest
and most characteristic type of vegetation in the Mediterranean basin.
Weeds that Floiver Among the Crops
Associated with the cultures and existing side by side or intermingled
with the crops, there exists an extensive weed- flora. Many of the com­ponent
species are natives which find in the annually disturbed soil and
in the absence of shrubbery, which would normally limit and control their
numbers, an ideal environment. Some are annuals appearing in early
spring and ripening with the cereals, while others have tough roots or
bulbs, tenacious of life and impossible to eradicate. Among these are
the annual species of Veronica, toadflax ( Linaria) of many sorts, poppies,
54
mallows ( Malva and Lavatera), garlics ( Allium), vetches ( Vicia, Lathyrus
and Ervum), and borages ( Anchusa and Borago). All luxuriate on
cultivated ground, in the light shade of the olives or among the budding
vines, and occur in such quantity as to impart color and verdure to the
landscape. A few are immigrants, such as the yellow sorrel ( Oxalis
cernua) from South Africa, which has found an equally agreeable home
in the citrus groves of California, and is there similarly spectacular and
pernicious. Two of the very few weeds originating in the New World are
the century- plant ( Agave americana) and the prickly- pear ( Opuntia
Ficus- indica), planted in the first place for ornament or in the form of
hedges, but now firmly established and abundant along roadsides and in
fallow fields. On the whole, however, the Mediterranean has given to
America, in vegetation as in other ways, far more than it has received.
There is no parallel to the invasion of western North America by the filaree
( Erodium cicutarium), an annual weed only moderately abundant around
the Mediterranean but today, in point of number of individuals, Cali­fornia's
commonest single species of seed- plant.
This short glance at the vegetation of the Mediterraneous littoral would
be far from complete without some reference to the desert regions, tracts
of coast where one looks in vain for the characteristic interplay of maquis,
ilex groves and vineyards. In southwestern Spain and along the African
coast from Tunisia, where an arm of the Sahara reaches up to the sea,
through northern Egypt to Palestine, the rainfall, by physiographic ac­cident,
is far lower than elsewhere, a fact inevitably reflected in the vege­tation.
Native trees, except for an occasional tamarisk, which here plays
the role of the juniper, become very rare or are wholly absent, and sal-solaceous
shrubs with small fleshy leaves become abundant. In the Spanish
province of Valencia the date palm is cultivated as successfully as in the
Saharan oases, while certain shrubs and herbs, otherwise confined to the
deserts south of the Atlas Mountains, have isolated stations. It is sig­nificant
that two Stapeliads ( Stapelia and Caralluma species), belonging
to a family of succulents which simulate the Cactaceae of the New World,
are found on the desert shores of Spain. But these regions, although lying
within1 the Mediterranean basin in a geographic sense, have comparatively
little kinship with the Mediterranean floral province, strictly defined, and
are largely extraneous to the subject of the present notes. So also are the
mountains which encircle the Inland Sea or which rise as islands out of
the lowlands of the basin and which, cooler and wetter than the coastal
region, support every type of vegetation, from the chestnut forests of
Corsica through the arid, elevated steppes of Castile and the Atlas, to the
lush meadows of the Alpes Maritimes, the volcanic screes of Mount Etna
and the alpine peaks of the Bithynian Olympus. These and many others,
which include some of the marvels and delights of the Mediterranean, must
await consideration elsewhere.
55
cAir ^ Plants and Their ^ Problems of Survival
How Specialized Roots and Leaves Help Them
Live Above the Ground
By E. E. Naylor
EXPLORATIONS into tropical regions abound with tales concerning
the finding of rare and beautiful orchids growing high on the branches
of jungle trees. Many members of the Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae,
Araceae, and nearly a dozen other families of plants 1 may be found in
such lofty places, and for this reason are oftentimes called " air plants."
Because they live upon other plants does not mean that they are parasitic.
On the contrary, these are green plants that are capable of manufacturing
their own food just the same as green plants that live on the ground. These
are true epiphytes, 2 growing upon other plants without any structural
connection, hence they have no means of exchange of water or foods, such
as parasites have. The requirements for the continued growth of epiphytes
do not differ in any marked way from those of plants that have their roots
in the earth. When they are supplied with water, carbon dioxide from the
air, the essential mineral elements, and sunlight, they make their own
foods and build up their own bodies. The chief problem is for these
plants to obtain the necessary materials in the peculiar places they inhabit.
" Air plants" obtain their materials for growth essentially from the
atmosphere, and because of this fact, many interesting and important
questions arise. For instance, how do they secure the water which makes
up some 80 to 90 percent of their total green weight ? And what is the
source of the iron, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and other mineral
elements vital to the construction of their bodies?
Spanish- moss, Tillandsia ( or Dendropogon) usneoides, is perhaps one
of the best examples to illustrate this epiphytic condition. In our southern
states it thrives upon the live oaks and upon certain cypress trees, hanging
in long twisted strands and forming a conspicuous part of the vegetation.
In fact, many people think that the presence of the Spanish- moss gives the
common name to the live oak, but the name comes instead from the fact
that the leaves of Quercus virginiana are green the, year around. Spanish-moss
also occasionally grows upon dead branches of trees, and even on
1 It is not uncommon to find mosses, lichens, liverworts, ferns, and selaginellas
growing on the same tree. Several members of the Cactus family also grow upon
other plants.
2 Epi means on, or upon, in Greek; PHYTON means plant.
56
telegraph wires and fences, but it does not kill the trees on which it grows,
except by occasionally cutting off the light from the leaves to such an extent
that the leaves can no longer function in the manufacture of food to
maintain the tree's growth.
Water Absorption
Ground- dwelling plants normally absorb water and dissolved minerals
for nourishment through their roots; but Spanish- moss, which has no
roots at all, is capable of absorbing the water which falls upon it by the
action of numerous scale- like structures which completely cover the leaves
and stems. When the plants are relatively dry, these scales separate from
each other and curve upward along their edges, giving the plant its whitish
appearance. When they are wet, the scales adhere closely to each other and
the underlying chlorophyll layers show through. Each scale is attached
near its center to a group of living cells known as the STALK CELLS. These
stalk cells are embedded within the tissues of the leaf and when the plants
Spanish moss, Tillandsia usneoides, covering a tree in Florida.
57
Tillandsia fasciculata, one of the bromeliads \ noum as " wild pines.'' growing on a tree
of Spondias lutea in Cuba.
are covered with rain or dew, the scales hold the water by capillary action
while the living stalk cells underneath slowly absorb it. When the storage
cells within the leaf become completely filled with water the plants can
exist for days, or even weeks, without an additional water supply. Under
experimental conditions they have been subjected to as much as two months
of rainless exposure without injury. Since showers and heavy dews are
frequent in tropical regions, it is possible for Spanish- moss to secure
enough water through these foliar structures to enable it to grow hanging
to whatever support may be at hand.
This plant belongs to a large family of flowering plants called the
Bromeliaceae, and it is related not to the mosses but to the cultivated pine­apple.
In contrast to the delicate structure of Spanish- moss, many mem­bers
of this group have long sharp- pointed leaves which become very tough
and leathery. Several of these species are common to the Everglades of
Florida where they are called " wild pines." These plants belong likewise
to the genus Tillandsia, and they are also covered with countless scales
58
Enlarged portions of Spanish moss. At the left, the
overlapping, water- absorbing scales which cover the
stems. Above, a single scale enlarged, and a section
through a scale ( after Billings, Botanical Gazette, 1904),
showing the basal stalk, cells which function in water absorption.-
which act like microscopic sponges in soaking up water. Some of these
Florida epiphytes are found occasionally in the dime stores of cities, where
they are sold as " air plants."
One of the giant bromeliads of Brazil, known as Vriesia. has very
interesting water- absorbing scales on its large leaves. Each scale has a
foot portion consisting of one to several cells, and a funnel- shaped stalk
part, which is sunk below the level of the epidermis. This stalk is sur­mounted
by a disc which is very thin around the margin and thick in the
center. When the air is dry, the thin outer part is turned upward, and
the central part is pulled down so that it completely covers the absorbing
stalk cells like a tight- fitting lid. When moistened, the lateral parts expand,
the lid is raised, and the stalk cells have access to the water held under
the scale. The whole apparatus functions as a beautiful device which
serves as an absorbing organ during wet spells and prevents the escape
of water during drought.
Another type of leaf modification which is found in many of the larger
bromeliads, such as Aechmea and Billbergia, is perhaps best described as
a water reservoir. In these plants the leaf bases are enlarged to form
spoon- shaped structures which overlap each other in such a fashion that
they hold water. During a shower the water falling on the leaves drains
down into these pockets where it is slowly absorbed through the soft tissues
of the leaf base. These reservoirs serve as a continuous source of water,
and also as small aquaria for certain algae and aquatic mosses— even for
59
small members of the animal kingdom. As much as a gallon of water 3
may be obtained from some of these tropical specimens when they are
turned upside down and allowed to drain.
The epiphytic orchids, 4 so well known for their beautiful flowers, and
also some of the aroids, are quite well adapted for the absorption of water
from the air. Instead of having roots like ground- dwelling plants, the
majority of the tropical orchids produce large aerial roots which cling to
the bark of trees upon which they are growing, or simply hang suspended in
the air. These odd- looking structures take up water by means of a special
3 See " Blueprint of the Jungle" by Mulford B. Foster in the January issue of
this Journal. 4 See " Epiphytic Orchids of Florida" by Alex D. Hawkes in last month's issue.
SCALES OF VRIESIA IN THE DRY AND WET CONDITIONS
Above, when dry, the scale is pulled downward to cover the absorbing cells
li\ e u tight'fitting lid. Below, when wet, the lid is raised to give the absorbing
cells access to the water that is available. ( After Haberkndt).
60
CELL STRUCTURE OF THE VELAMEN OF ORCHIDS
Left ( after Gager), the orchid velamen is shown to be the outer, dead part of
an orchid root, which acts li\ e blotting paper in absorbing moisture from the
air. Right ( after Goebel), on the sides of the orchid root next to the bar\, in
Phalaenopsis Schilleriana. the velamen is shown above to be fully developed
into a spongy tissue, while on the outer side ( below), it is reduced to a point
where its chief function is to prevent drying out.
layer called the VELAMEN. This tissue covers the roots and acts like a piece
of blotting paper in absorbing and holding water.
The velamen consists of a silvery parchment- like sheath of cells which
has lost all living contents and has become filled with air. The walls of
many of the cells are strengthened in a great variety of ways, but most
often by means of spiral thickening fibers. This cellular envelope takes up
water by capillary action and is to be regarded as the true absorbing tissue
of these aerial roots.
After the water is absorbed by the velamen it passes inward through thin-walled
living cells, known as " passage cells" to the central portion of the
root. Here it enters the specialized conducting strands ( vascular bundles)
61
and moves upward through these definite channels to the leaves where some
of it is used in photosynthesis and the remainder is evaporated into the
air. When aerial roots of orchids are wet by a shower they change in
color from papery white to a pale green, revealing green tissues under­neath.
These tissues contain chlorophyll and may therefore perform the
work of photosynthesis, a function not usually associated with the roots
of plants.
Water vapor also can be absorbed by the velamen. Experimental results
show that certain orchids, when transferred from very dry air to very
moist air, will absorb from 8 to 11 percent of their weight in moisture
within 24 hours. After a thorough wetting by a tropical shower the
velamen may absorb enough water to supply the plant for several days.
Some orchids show further peculiarities of structure of the roots to
insure maximum absorption and minimum evaporation of water. In
EPIPHYTIC PLANTS
OF THREE FAMILIES
1 Vnesia *
of the Brgi
2 Dendrobium no
bile of the Orchi
daceae. 3. A spe
cies of Rhipsalis |~
the Cactaceae.
62
Phalaenopsis Schilleriana the roots are flattened and lie close to the bark
of the tree. Absorption of water takes place largely on the side next to
the bark, while the other side is so constructed that it protects the roots
against drying out. Structurally, the roots have a two- layered velamen
on both sides, but on the upper side it is reduced, while on the lower side
it is fully developed, very spongy in texture, and with a high capacity for
absorbing water.
Root hairs are seldom, if ever, found on the free hanging roots of
orchids. Some of the epiphytic ferns, however, such as the giant staghorn
ferns of Australia, produce modified types of hairs which are not sensitive
to dryness and which therefore may exist for a long period of time. These
peculiar brown hairs, which are exposed to the air, serve to hold water by
capillarity and act as a sort of root sponge, probably like the velamen of
orchids, absorbing vapor as well as actual drops of water from the air.
In addition to water- absorbing leaf scales, leaf reservoirs, the velamen
of air roots, and the root hairs of certain ferns, there are other adaptations
which further enable epiphytes to survive above the ground. Most
epiphytes develop a very thick cuticle over their stems and leaves which
lessens water loss. Some are covered with waxy scales or possess hairy
coverings which likewise function in slowing down evaporation. Sometimes,
as in Spanish- moss, the leaves are reduced in size, or, as in certain of the
epiphytic cacti, they are nothing more than spines. Occasionally orchids
drop the expanded part of the leaf during dry periods and only the bulb­like
lower portion remains as a water and food storage organ.
Mineral Nutrition
The source of mineral elements for epiphytes has long been a subject
for discussion. Ash analyses of Spanish- moss show that it contains com­pounds
of sodium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, chlorine, calcium,
iron, sulfur, and silica. The amounts of sulfur, chlorine, and silica are
higher than in many other plants, and the ferric oxide content is much
higher. Obviously these minerals are not supplied through a root system
from the soil solution as is true for such common plants as sunflowers and
soybeans.
It has been argued that the scales of Spanish- moss play the important
role of catching and holding dust particles which supply the inorganic
materials necessary for growth. To test this hypothesis, scientific studies
were conducted by the Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, and their findings do not give substantial evidence to this
The originals of the photographs reproduced on the opposite page were made in 1902
by the German botanist E. Idle, who spent the greater part of his life exploring in
Brazil. These pictures are part of a small collection of Ule's which have been deposited
in the library of the New Yor\ Botanical Garden.
. The bromeliad, Nidularium eleuiheropetalum,
shares the upper branches of a Brazilian tree with a
1arge> leaved aroid. 2. The staghornfern, Platycerium
anainum, and a tropical polypody, Polypodium Ulei,
s lite side by side as epiphytes on a jungle tree. 3. The
' bushy rosette of narrow leaves belongs to the bromc
i
tliad, Streptocalyx angustifolius. 4. A spineless, tree
^ ty^ fosette of narrow leaves belongs to the n here
64
theory. These investigators were unable to find visible evidence of quartz
grains, which are prominent in ordinary dust, when superficial portions of
the plants were rubbed off and examined under a polarizing microscope.
Washings from the plants also failed to show appreciable amounts of
mineral substances.
Additional tests were made by comparing ash analyses of plants which
had previously been washed with distilled water with unwashed specimens.
Final tabulations showed some minor differences between washed and
unwashed plants, but the differences were not systematic, and did not
exceed variations expected in the sampling of materials. No change in
the percentage of total ash was found, and also no differences in the
amounts of silica or ferric oxide as would be expected if loosely adherent
dust particles were washed away.
The general conclusion was reached that, since dust can not be demon­strated
in appreciable quantities on the plants or in the washings from
them, Spanish- moss does not obtain its mineral elements from dust caught
between the scales. This places considerably less emphasis on the im­portance
of the scales as dust traps, and more upon their role as water-absorbing
organs.
It might also be added that the Spanish- mosses, and many other epi­phytes,
grow in tropical forests where the air is kept rather free from dust
by frequent showers. In addition, it seems reasonable to believe that rain
is more likely to wash dust away than to deposit it on a plant hanging in air.
Further investigations, especially by Edgar T. Wherry and his asso­ciates,
point to the possibility that air plants obtain their minerals chiefly
from constituents already dissolved in rain water as it falls on the plants.
We usually think that rain water is pure, but this is not necessarily true.
A chemical analysis of rain water samples, taken near the coast of British
Guiana, revealed that it contained minute quantities of iron, aluminum,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and chlorine. Sulfates, carbon­ates,
silicates, and small amounts of ammonia also were present. The
elements sodium and chlorine were found to be most abundant, and are
accounted for by ocean spray which is carried to high levels by wind action.
The source of mineral elements in rain water is traced ultimately to dust
particles. As water vapor condenses and falls through the air it comes in
contact with dust carried by air currents, and minute amounts of minerals
are thus dissolved in this water by the time it falls on the earth. These
minerals are not in the same proportions as found in the living plants, but
it is well known that plants are capable of extracting relatively large
amounts of such substances from very dilute solutions. Frequent showers
are therefore most important to the growth of epiphytes since they supply
both the necessary moisture and a continuous supply of very dilute mineral
elements.
65
Under natural conditions most epiphytes are subjected to the water
which drips from other plants, especially from the bark of branches of the
plants supporting them. This would afford an additional source of in­organic
substances with every shower.
When epiphytes are grown indoors under artificial conditions they do
not have the benefit of rain water, yet they may live successfully for a long
time. Spanish- moss has been growing here at the New York Botanical
Garden in the Rain Forest house for many years. It is sprayed several
times each day with the regular city water, and the fact that it grows and
produces flowers indicates that it is obtaining the necessary building
materials. Some of the minerals are supplied from the city water, some
perhaps from the canopy of dead branches above, and some from the
washings from other plants. Carefully controlled experiments on the
mineral nutrition of this plant might yield some interesting and important
facts.
Orchids have additional sources of minerals from the considerable
vegetable detritus which ultimately collects about the base of long estab­lished
plants. . This may be composed of decaying leaves, bits of bark, and
sometimes lichens and mosses. After some lapse of time the epiphyte may
have a small amount of soil at its disposal. This condition is found in the
staghorn ferns, as well as in many orchids.
Certain orchids also produce aerial roots which are negatively geotropic,
and as they grow outward from the plant they form a thick basket- like
tangle of roots which sometimes become a foot or more in diameter. These
entangled masses are called " nest roots" and serve the important function
of holding decaying plant materials which gradually accumulate. Enough
humus may become lodged to serve as a source of both moisture and
minerals. These " nest roots" are found in certain species of Oncidium
and Cymbidium, as well as in some members of the Aroid family.
Two important factors concerning the growth of epiphytes have been
considered— the source of water, and the source of mineral elements. In
addition, they must also have sunlight because it furnishes the energy for
the process of food manufacture in all green plants. This problem has
been met most successfully by epiphytes. By adapting themselves to
aerial habitats they have raised themselves off the shaded forest floor and
thus have access to enough sunlight each day to maintain growth and
reproduction.
Although " air plants," or epiphytes, have no roots in contact with the
soil, they can absorb enough water and enough minerals that are dissolved
in this water to grow and flourish in competition with hosts of other plants.
They constitute a diverse and remarkable group, in which we find a high
degree of specialization in the peculiar water- absorbing structures that
make their very existence possible.
66
Spring ^ Programs at the Qarden
Members Day Programs
Wednesdays at 3: 30 P. M.
Apr. 4 Daffodils in Your Garden
James G. Esson, Editor, Gardeners' Chronicle of America
May 2 Pleasures of Rock Gardening in Westchester County
Harold Epstein, Member of the New York Botanical Garden
June 13 Rose Growers' Day—
In co- operation with the New York section of the American
Rose Society All- day program to be announced
Tivo Motion Pictures with Sound
Saturdays at 3 o'clock in the Museum Building
Mar. 17 Our Neighbors Down the Road—
A scenic trip along the Pan- American Highway, produced by the
Co- ordinator of Inter- American Affairs.
Apr. 28 New York State Parks— Presented by C. R. Blakelock, Secretary,
Long Island State Park Commission.
Six Illustrated Lectures by Members of the Botanical Gardens Staff on
THE GREAT GROUPS OF PLANTS
How They Live From Year to Year
Saturdays at 3 o'clock in the Museum Building
Mar. 10 Flowering Plants, From Grass to Orchids Frances E. Wynne
Mar. 24 More Flowers: Pussy- Willows to Chrysanthemums Frances E. Wynne
Mar. 31 Trees That Bear Cones H. W. Rickett
Apr. 7 Ferns of Forest and Field H. W. Rickett
Apr. 14 Green Plants in Miniature—
The Mosses and Liverworts Frances E. Wynne
Apr. 21 Plants Without Roots, Stems, or Leaves—
The Fungi and Algae ' F. J. Seaver
RADIO PROGRAMS
Alternate Fridays, 3: 30 p. m. WNYC ( 830 on the dial)
Mar. 9 Two Years in the South Pacific
Mrs. Elizabeth Williams, Red Cross Overseas Worker
Mar. 23 Favorite Flowering Shrubs of Spring
P. J. van Melle, Nurseryman, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and Instructor,
New York Botanical Garden
Apr. 6 How Finer Garden Flowers are Developed
A. B. Stout, Curator of Education and Laboratories,
New York Botanical Garden
Apr. 20 Spring at The N. Y. Botanical Garden
Mrs. Robert H. Fife, Chairman of Advisory Council,
New York Botanical Garden
67
B R O A D C A S T
By W. D. TURNER
PL A S T I C ash- trays, bottle- caps,
handles, containers of various sorts,
and colorful tees for a golfer to use
ivere exhibited on the studio table when
Dr. W. D. Turner wds interuiezved dur­ing
the Garden's broadcast Nov. 17 over
WNYC on " Plastics from Plant Ma­terials."
Dr. Turner is Professor of
Chemical Engineering at Columbia Uni­versity
and is also Eastern Technical Di­rector
of the Plastics Industries Techni­cal
Institute in New York. Excerpts
from his talk are given here.
PLANTS provide a large percentage
of the plastic materials that are now
being manufactured, and in the light of
present research I can see a vast increase
in the use of plants— particularly waste
materials from the farm, such as corn­cobs
and nutshells, also cornstalks, oat
hulls, and many other products that
formerly were a total loss to the pro­ducer
of farm crops.
At present, however, the most im­portant
plant used for plastics is cotton.
The fibers— the same as are used for
weaving cloth— are used for the plastics,
but there again, the waste cotton can be
used, for when the fibers are too short
for spinning, they can be combined with
chemicals and turned into plastics.
Celluloid, you know, was the first
plastic ever made, and it was created out
of cotton linters, bits of wood that were
ground into a pulp, nitric acid, and cam­phor.
An Albany printer named Hyatt
first made it in 1869, and he gave the
world the start of an industry with in­finite
possibilities and with a future
which now, 75 years later, is really just
beginning.
Waste material from lumbering, as
well as waste material from farm crops,
can be used in the making of plastics.
And more than that, some very important
by- products come from the use of wood
waste in making plastics. The best-smelling
factory in the world is probably
the one in Wisconsin where about a
quarter of all packaging paper used in
the United States is manufactured. As a
by- product of the sulphite wood pulp that
is used for the paper, vanillin1 is made.
This is the flavoring most used by bakeries
and candy and dessert manufacturers,
and it is, of course, much cheaper than
the extract prepared from the beans
of the vanilla orchid from the tropics.
You ask how a flavoring like vanillin
was ever discovered in sulphite wood
waste.
Well, years ago, all such wastes were
dumped into rivers with the result that
fish died and many people complained.
Eventually laws were passed to prevent
this pollution, so the mills had to find
some other means of disposing of their
refuse. The story is briefly told in a
little book put out by the Plastics In­stitute.
2 Mr. Lougee, the author, says, in
describing the work of a chemical
engineer for one of the big paperVom-panies:
" He began by treating waste liquors
with lime in a precipitation process,
which separates lignin from the residue.
Lignin is further cooked with acid into
what is called a sulphite lignin base.
Treated in one way this base becomes
vanillin. Treated another way, it is
processed into lignin plastics. A number
of chemical products such as calcium,
sodium, magnesium, and other salts are
recovered and disposed of at a profit.
Hardly anything remains except the
water that was originally added to wash
and float the pulp."
Oat hulls are used as a base for many
plastics, in that furfural is processed
from them— also from corn cobs; and
furfural is the chemical base of some
of our most important plastics. To ex­plain
what furfural is without going
into the chemistry of it, I would say
that furfural is a colorless oily liquid
which has wide use in the manufacture
of rubber, glue, disinfectants, lacquers,
and dyes, as well as certain plastics.
Oat hulls and corn cobs are also used
occasionally, as soybeans are, for mak­ing
plastic articles directly, but the soy­beans
seldom are used by themselves. It
is customary to blend the soybean plastic
with other materials. The best and most
extensive soybean application has been
1. Pronounced with the accent on the first
syllable.
2. Reviewed in this Journal in November,
1943.
68
made by Henry Ford. He purifies the
soybean meal to remove all oils and then
blends the protein part and the fibre
part, which are left over, with a com­position
similar to bakelite. This blend
makes strong and beautiful parts for
automobile trim especially.
Nutshells, a few years ago, started out
to have tremendous possibilities for plas­tics
manufacturing, and they are still
used to a considerable extent. They
figure in the manufacture of certain
small parts for airplanes and are used
for dies for casting; but since they were
first developed in 1935, other waste
products have outstripped them. They
are now used chiefly as filler for plas­tics
that are made from other materials.
A promising new industry for Brazil
is the production of bottle caps and such
items made from coffee beans. 3
The plastics industry should become a
great boon to farmers and producers of
this and other countries. It is always
dangerous to make predictions, but I
believe that if corncobs or cornstalks
or other light- weight materials are to
find wide use in production of plastics,
it will be necessary to use small portable
plastic manufacturing plants which can be
sent into farm districts. This is because
these materials are so bulky that it will
be more economical to carry the
processing plant into the area than to
transport the farm wastes by rail to
distant centers for processing.
Notices and Reviews of Recent ^ Books
( All publications mentioned here may be consulted in the Library of The New
York Botanical Garden or may be purchased on order through the Library.)
Four Who Opened a Continent
S< H TH AMERICA CALLED THEM.
Victor Wolfgang von Hagen. 311
pages, illustrations, bibliography,
index. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
1945. $ 3.75.
" South America Called Them" by
Victor von Hagen stands out like a peak
in the Andes among the plethora of
books on South America. The author
gives vivid accounts of the expeditions
of four great naturalist- explorers,
La Condamine, Humboldt, Darwin, and
Spruce, each of them a pioneer in his
field, two of them supreme in their
achievement. Their travels covered a
century and a half. La Condamine came
to Quito in 1735, Darwin published " The
Origin of Species" in 1859, the year of
Humboldt's death. During this period
South America emerged as a free and
independent continent, thanks to the
leadership of Bolivar.
La Condamine's purpose in going to
Ecuador was to find out if Newton's
theory that the earth is a globe flattened
at the poles and bulging at the equator
was correct. He proved it by nine years
of laborious measurements in the Andes.
While he was doing this La Condamine
was shown the first map that had been
made of the Amazon by a Jesuit Padre.
This aroused that " curiosite ardente"
which Voltaire found so characteristic
of: him. He immediately planned to re­turn
to France by way of the Amazon and
to make an accurate chart of that river
which no Frenchman had ever seen. On
this journey he unknowingly became the
first rubber manufacturer for he made
himself a pouch of rubber for his
quadrant. Rubber was of course known
to all the explorers since Cortez, who
had seen the Aztecs play a game witli
solid rubber balls.
Next in line was one of the greatest
naturalist of all times— Baron von Hum­boldt,
the friend of Goethe, and possibly
( as Dr. von Hagen ingeniously suggests)
the inspirer oE Bolivar. From 1799 to
1804 Humboldt and Bonpland, the botan­ist,
explored Colombia, Venezuela,
Ecuador and Peru and established the
connection between the Amazon and the
Orinoco which La Condamine had heard
of fifty years earlier. In Venezuela
Humboldt Found coffee and chocolate
69
growing. Arab traders had brought cot-fee
out of Ethiopia into Spain, from
where it had reached the New World in
1720. Cacao, which when roasted and
ground becomes chocolate, had been de­veloped
by the Incas under the name of
Kakua and had I'eached Mexico before
Cortez. Linnaeus had named the cacao
tree " Theobroma Cacao" but it was
Humboldt who described its cultivation
and growth. Bonpland, returning to
France, was made superintendent of her
gardens at Malmaison by the Empress
Josephine, the beautiful Creole who
adored flowers.
Baron von Humboldt was the first
modern geographer who became a great
traveler; he was a human geographer, a
field in which he was the originator. His
influence in his way was as great in the
world of thought as Napoleon's in the
world oE action. Animals, trees, plants,
rivers, cities, streets, and currents bear
his honored name. Thomas Jefferson
invited him lo come to North America
and they spent three weeks together at
Monticello. There Jefferson communi­cated
to Humboldt an extraordinary
project for the future division of the
continent of America into three great re­publics
into which were to be in­corporated
Mexico and the South Amer­ican
countries. Humboldt's comment on
bis visit to North America was " that
the institution of slavery was the only
cloud."
He returned lo Europe with a mighty
corpus oE knowledge which filled many
volumes and was eagerly read. Hum­boldt's
words and deeds fired the mind
of the young Englishman, Charles Dar­win,
and lie grasped the first oppor­tunity
of going to South America. Cap­tain
Fitzroy needed a naturalist aboard
the Beagle which was to make a survey
of both coasts of South America. Dar­win
accepted the post. This was the
only journey he ever made but it fertil­ized
Ins thought the way guano fertilized
the dry coastal land of Peru. And from
the observations and deductions he made
on the Galapagos Islands, the " Origin
of Species" was born and zoology in its
modern phase began.
The last but not unworth}- successor of
these great naturalists was Richard
Spruce, a self- taught and painstaking
botanist from Yorkshire. For seventeen
years he explored the Amazon basin,
sending home thousands of specimens to
the museums of Europe. Kew alone re­ceived
thirty thousand. He sent Cin­chona
to India. He made a careful study
of rubber- yielding trees, and passed this
information on to Kew, at that time the
British government's adviser on rubber.
Twenty years later, thanks to this in­formation,
another Englishman, Henry
Wickham, made his famous— or rather,
we might say infamous—" seed snatch"
through which a whole industry was
taken bodily from Amazonia to India
and Malaya. Spruce had never intended
this to happen.
The pioneer age of South American
exploration comes to a close with him.
He is the last link between the Colonial
and Industrial eras. Much remains to
be explored; the author enumerates many
of the things that are still waiting to be
done. He ends with a trumpet call—
" South America is Calling."
Note: It seems almost invidious to
single out for special mention any part
of this superb book, but the 14th chapter
stands out for its sympathetic interpre­tation
of an important question, that
confront one everywhere in the Andes—
the problem of the Indian since the
Conquest.
AMY SPIXGARN.
Crop- Plants of Georgia
And Nearby States
SOUTHERN HORTKILTIRE. H.
P. Rtuckey. 688 pages, illustrated,
indexed. Turner K. Smith and Co.,
Atlanta. Georgia. J2- 56.
" Dedicated to the Farmers of To­morrow,"
this book is a school book, and
the material is so clearly and simply pre­sented
that even grade school students
could understand it.
In the preface, Paul Chapman, Editor,
affirms that the nation's trend in agri­culture
is towards fruit and vegetables
and away from field crops, and that the
South is largely responsible for providing
said fruit and vegetables, especially in
winter.
The author follows this lead and
leatures orchards, groves, berry acreage,
and other food- producing land, for com­mercial
purposes and also for home use.
Peaches have the spot- light, naturally,
for Dr. Stuckey is a loyal Georgian, the
Director of the Georgia Experiment Sta-
70
tion. Apples, pecans, figs, the several
berries, melons and vegetables— all are
given detailed attention from planting to
marketing, not forgetting to brush off
insects and ward off diseases. Questions
for class discussion, references for
further study, and many maps add to the
value of the text. In conclusion, space
is given to the home vegetable garden,
and the beautifying of home grounds,
which makes the happy ending.
However, some southern horticulturists
will look in vain for cotton and tobacco,
and those who live across the Florida
line will not find oranges in the index,
but only okra and onions under " O";
likewise, no grapefruit under " G", but
only garlic and grapes.
The title of the book covers a large
territory, but from the Georgian view­point,
the great sub- tropical crops fade
out in the distance.
" Southern Horticulture'' gives a very
practical discussion of the subjects
chosen from the wealth of plant ma­terial
of the southern states.
EVA NOBLE,
Jacksonville, Fla.
Guide for Successful Fruit- Growing
F R U I T S FOR THE HOME
GARDEN. U. P. Hedrick. 171
pages, illustrated, indexed. Oxford
University Press, New York, 1944.
S3.
Here is an excellent book on fruit
growing, designed particularly for the
person who is entering this field but none
the less valuable to the fruit grower in
general. Its main point of distinction
lies in the concise and easily understood
manner in which directions are given,
instruction which the amateur may
readily grasp and put to practical use.
Commencing with the essentials of soil,
site and cjimate selection, the author goes
on to describe the various fundamental
practices necessary to assure a success­ful
outcome. It is evident that the in­formation
dispensed is the culmination of
many years o F close observation and
association with this work.
The chapter on propagating fruits will
no doubt be especially intriguing to the
novice, as too the spraying calendar, both
of which are clearly set forth without
over- much confusing detail.
Separate chapters are devoted to each
of the main fruits or fruit groups, giving
detailed information of their care to­gether
with a selection of varieties, many
of which are of recent introduction, in
their order of ripening.
The illustrations add much to the value
of this work.
EDWIN BECKETT,
Middlcfozen Farm,
Red Bank, N. J.
Orchids of a Distant Land
THE ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH
WALES. H. Jl. R. Rupp. 152 pages,
illustrated, indexed. Australasian
Medical Publishing Co. Ltd., N. S. W.
1943.
The first volume in a projected new
Flora of New South Wales, issued by
the National Herbarium, has been pre­pared
by an honorary member of the
staff who has made the study of the
native flora a major interest during half
a century. For the past 20 years the
Rev. Rupp has specialized in the orchids
oE that part of Australia.
Twenty- three plates illustrate charac­teristic
plants of different types. The
addendum includes five newly discovered
species of Diuris, described and named
by Mrs. Pearl R. Messmer.
While the book is technical and com­plete
enough for the taxonomist, its
style is such that, with the help of the
introduction and glossary, botanically
untrained persons should be able to use
it too.
CAROL H. WOODWARD.
Far Western Plants, Continued
ILLUSTRATED FLORA OF THE
PACIFIC STATES, Vol. II. Le Roy
Abrams. 635 pages, illustrated, in­dexed.
Stanford University Press,
Calif. 1944. $ 7.50.
Plant lovers who for years have been
waiting for the second volume of Pro­fessor
Le Roy Abrams' Illustrated Flora
of the Pacific States will be gratified to
know that it has appeared and that there
will apparently be a relatively short de­lay
in tlie publication of the third volume.
The book covers the flora from the Buck­wheat
Family to the Krameria Family,
inclusive, and offers descriptions and il­lustrations
of 1,663 species.
71
The style of the book has been con­spicuously
changed. Instead of a separate
cut for each species, the illustrations have
been assembled into plates, mostly full
page and dealing with nine species each.
The book will certainty be extremely use­ful
to all botanists, whether professional
or amateur, who are interested in western
plants.
H. A. GLEASON.
Science in Retrospect
A SHORTER HISTORY OF SCI­ENCE.
Sir William Cecil Dampier.
189 pages, illustrated, indexed.
Macmillan, New York. 1944. $ 2.
Some years ago, Sir William Cecil
Dampier of Cambridge University wrote
a rather extensive history of science
which considered the philosophic as well
as the chronological and more tangible
aspects of the subject. In referring to
that volume, Sir William has written:
" Some, however, have found the philo­sophic
part difficult to read, and have
asked for a straightforward story of the
growth of science reduced to its simplest
terms." The present pocket- sized volume
is a result of that thought, and the author,
in preparing it, had in mind primarily
two groups of people, tlie general reader
and the scientifically inclined schoolboy
who needs to look at his subject, as he
says, " from a humanist standpoint."
E. H. FULLING.
Monograph on Cellulose
CELLULOSE and CELLULOSE
DERIVATIVES ( Hijrh Polymers,
Volume 5). Emil Ott. Editor. 1,176
pages. Author and subject index.
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New
York, 1943. ¥ 15.
In the words of the Editor, this is
"? thorough introduction for work on
any cellulose problem by any person with
reasonably wide general technical train­ing."
After a short introduction on the oc­currence
of cellulose, comprehensive
monographs which do not presuppose an
understanding of a later section deal with
the fundamental properties of cellulose,
structure and properties of cellulose
fibers, carbohydrates normally associated
with cellulose in nature, lignin and other
noncarbohydrates, preparation and puri­fication
of cellulose, derivatives of cel­lulose,
physical properties of cellulose and
its derivatives, and a summary oi tech­nical
application.
This compilation is written by a num­ber
of experts thoroughly conversant
with their respective fields. However,
a more extensive study of the work, for
example of Bose or Falck and others,
should have prevented the editor from
publishing statements as occur on page
152 with reference to enzymatic degrada­tions.
F. F. NORD,
Fordham University,
Garden Photography
ALL ABOUT PHOTOS IN THE
GARDEN AND YOUR CAMERA.
R. Jl. Fanstone. 58 pages, illus­trated.
Transatlantic Arts, New
York. 1941. 50c.
Reading Mr. Fanstone's book on
photos in the garden gave me pleasure,
and friends who borrowed the book
agreed with my own opinion that it is
interesting and instructive, and that it
discusses the various problems one en­counters
in garden photography. The
only criticism we had to make concerned
the illustrations, which were either
cropped too much or taken too close to
the subject, with the result that portions
of anatomy are missing. For example,
the five pictures by H. Gorny are clear
and sharp only in parts, and look as
though they were prints taken out of the
heart of the original negative.
FREDERICK W. RAETZ.
Negro Biography
DR. GEORGE WASHINGTON
CARVER, Scientist. Shirley
Graham and George D. Lipscomb.
Illustrated by Elton C. Fax. 248
pages, appendix, index. Julian
Jlessner, Inc., 1944. $ 2.50.
Two people of his own race have
written about the great Negro scientist
in a documented but somewhat Actionized
biography, and a third has illustrated the
work. Enlivened with conversation, the
book develops the character of Dr.
Carver in an easy manner, showing him
chiefly in his relations with other people,
but not neglecting his contributions to
agricultural economy.
CAROL H. WOODWARD.
72
Notes, News, and Comment
Red Cross Display. When the doors
were opened to the public after the
ceremony for the unveiling of the
Garden's Red Cross display in the con­servatories
the afternoon of Sunday,
March 4, there were 15,000 people wait­ing
on the paths outside and in the
adjacent houses, to view the floral red
cross ( pictured on the cover) and the
Philippine jungle scene with the Red
Cross recreation hut erected among the
trees. A description of the display and
a report of the program will be given in
next month's Journal.
Conference. F. L. Arland of White
Plains, a member of the Botanical
Garden, who has worked for many years
on the culture and breeding of Epigaea
repens, the trailing arbutus or mayflower,
spoke on his experiences with these
plants at the conference of the staff and
registered students of the Garden Feb.
16. The second half of the program was
given by Arthur Cronquist, who described
some of his recent taxonomic studies in
the Sapotaceae.
Addresses. Dr. William J. Robbins,
after attending a board meeting of the
Biological Stain Commission at the
Cornell Medical College in New York on
Feb. 17, left for Providence where he
gave an address that evening at Brown
University on " Growth Substance De­ficiencies
of the Fungi." The evening
of Feb. 21 he addressed an audience at
the Brooklyn Botanic Garden on " Penicil­lin
and Similar Substances." This was
the third lecture in a course being given
there on " Recent Discoveries in Plant
Science." On March 2 Dr. Robbins at­tended
a meeting of the National Science
Fund in Boston, where, as chairman, he
accepted a fund of $ 50,000 from the
National Sugar Research Foundation to
be distributed as prizes for research on
new uses for cane sugar.
Dr. A. B. Stout spoke on " Hemerocal­lis,
Old and New" Feb. 5 in the course
in floriculture given by the Horticultural
Society of New York. On March 6 he
addressed the Bronxville Woman's Club,
an Affiliate of the Garden, on the same
subject.
Elizabeth C. Hall addressed the Rye
Garden Club, an Affiliate, Feb. 6 on
" What Makes the Library of the New
York Botanical Garden Unique." On
Feb. 21 she spoke before the North At­lantic
group of the American Rock
Garden Society on " A Five- Foot Shelf
for Rock Gardeners."
' Dr. Roberta Ma spoke at Adelphi Col­lege
in Garden City Feb. 12 on " Chinese
Women in Science and their Oppor-
Visitors. Dow V. Baxter of the Uni­versity
of Michigan spent two days at
the Garden, Feb. 26 and 27, working on
the fungi of Puerto Rico. While here
he showed the staff his motion pictures
taken during a recent trip to the West
Indies. Josiah L. Lowe of the College
of Forestry at Syracuse, Rene Pomereau
of the College of Forestry in Quebec,
and J. M. Waterston of Bermuda, cur­rently
of Cornell, were other February
visitors in the mycological herbarium.
Among other visitors of the month
were Helena Azevedo, Librarian in the
National Museum of Brazil in Rio de
Janeiro; Margarita Silva, mycologist in
the School of Tropical Medicine at San
Juan, Puerto Rico; Oscar P. Chiesa, of
the Botanical Garden in Buenos Aires;
Jose G. Rivas of the Department of
Education in Buenos Aires; George W.
Irving, Biochemist in charge of bio­logically
active compounds for the
U. S. D. A. at Beltsville, Md., who came to
discuss research problems and visit Dr.
Robbins's laboratory; Dr. Walter Carter
of the University of Hawaii, who is
working on pineapple wilt caused by
insects, and who came to confer with
Drs. Robbins and Dodge.
Groups. School and Scout groups which
have toured the Garden in recent weeks
under the guidance of staff members in­clude
a nature study class from the
Spence Girls' School, classes from Bronx
Public Schools Nos. 27 and 114, and a
Zionist Scout troop.
THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
Officers
JOSEPH R. SWAN, President
HENRY DE FOREST BALDWIN, Vice- president
JOHN L. MERRILL, Vice- president
ARTHUR M, ANDERSON, Treasurer
HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE, Secretary
Elective Managers
E. C. AucHTER MRS. ELON HUNTINGTON H. HOBART PORTER
WILLIAM FELTON BARRETT HOOKER FRANCIS E POWELL JR
EDWIN DE T. BECHTEL PIERRE JAY M HAROLD T PR A T T'
HENRY F. DU PONT CLARENCE MCK. LEWIS M R S " hAB< fD
T, L ™ A Tr
MARSHALL FIELD E. D. MERRILL WILLIAM J. ROBBINS
REV. ROBT. I. GANNON, S. J ROBERT H. MONTGOMERY A. PERCY SAUNDERS
Ex- Officio Managers
FIORELLO H. LAGUARDIA, Mayor of the City of Nezv York
MARY E. DILLON, President of the Board of Education
ROBERT MOSES, Park Commissioner
Appointive Managers
By the Torrey Botanical Club
H. A. GLEASON
By Columbia University
MARSTON T. BOGERT MARCUS M. RHOADES
CHARLES W. BALLARD SAM F. TRELEASE
THE STAFF
WILLIAM J. ROBBINS, P H . D . , SC. D. Director
H. A. GLEASON, P H . D . Assistant Director and Curator
HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE Assistant Director
FRED J, SEAVER, P H . D . , SC. D. Head Curator
A. B. STOUT, P H . D . Curator of Education and Laboratories
BERNARD O. DODGE, P H . D . Plant Pathologist
JOHN HENDLEY BARNHART, A. M., M. D. Bibliographer Emeritus
H. W. RICKETT, P H . D . Bibliographer
BASSETT MAGUIRE, P H . D . Curator
HAROLD N. MOLDENKE, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Associate Curator
ELIZABETH C HALL, A. B., B. S. Librarian
ELMER N. MITCHELL Photographer
ROBERT S. WILLIAMS Research Associate in Bryology
E. J. ALEXANDER, B. S. Assistant Curator and Curator of the Local Herbarium
W. H. CAMP, P H . D . ( On leave of absence) Assistant Curator
FRANCES E. WYNNE, P H . D . Assistant Curator
E. E. NAYLOR, P H . D . Assistant Curator
ARTHUR CRONQUIST, P H . D . Assistant Curator
SELMA KOJAN, B. S. Technical Assistant
ROSALIE WEIKERT Technical Assistant
CAROL H. WOODWARD, A. B. Editor of the Journal
THOMAS H. EVERETT, N. D. HORT. Horticulturist
G. L. WITTROCK, A. M. Custodian of the Herbarium
OTTO DEGENER, M. S. Collaborator in Hawaiian Botany
A. J. GROUT, P H . D . Honorary Curator of Mosses
ROBERT HAGELSTEIN Honorary Curator of Myxomycetes
JOSEPH F. BURKE Honorary Curator of the Diatomaceae
B. A. KRUKOFF Honorary Curator of Economic Botany
ETHEL ANSON S. PECK HAM Honorary Curator, Iris and Narcissus Collections
A. C PFANDER Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds
To reach the Botanical Garden, take the Independent Subway to Bedford Park Blvd.
station; use the Bedford Park Blvd. exit and walk east. Or take the Third Avenue
Elevated to the Bronx Park or the 200th St. station, or the New York Central to the
Botanical Garden station.
THE CORPORATION OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
The New York Botanical Garden was incorporated by a special act of the Legislature of
the State of New York in 1891. The Act of Incorporation provides, among other things, for
a self- perpetuating body of incorporators, who meet annually to elect members of the Board of
Managers. They also elect new members of their own body, the present roster ( if which is
Kiven below.
The Advisory Council consists of 12 or more women who are elected by the Board. By
custom, they are also elected to the Corporation. Officers are: Mrs. Robert H. Fife, Chairman;
Mrs. Elon Huntington Hooker, First Vice- Chairman; Mrs. William A. Lockwood, Second Vice-
Chairman; Mrs. Nelson B. Williams, Recording Secretary; Mrs. Townsend Scudder, Corresponding
Secretary; and Mrs. F. Leonard Kellogg, Treasurer.
Arthur M. Anderson
Mrs. Arthur M. Anderson
Mrs. George Arents, Jr.
George Arents. Jr.
E. C. Auchter
Dr. Raymond F. Bacon
Prof. L. H. Bailey
Stephen Baker
Henry de Forest Baldwin
Sherman Baldwin
Charles W. Ballard
Mrs. James Barnes
William Felton Barrett
Mrs. William Felton Barrett
Edwin De T. Bechtel
William B. Bell
Prof. Charles P. Berkey
Prof. Marston T. Bogert
Prof. William J. Bonisteel
George P. Brett
Mrs. Richard de Wolfe Brixey
Dr. Nicholas M. Butler
Mrs. Andrew Carnegie
Miss Mabel Choate
Miss E. Mabel Clark
W. R. Coe
Richard C. Colt
Mrs. Jerome W. Coombs
Mrs. Henry S. Fcnimore Cooper
Mrs. William Redmond Cross
Mrs. C. I. DcBevoise
Mrs. Thomas M. Debevotse
Edward C. Dclafield
Mrs. John Ross Delafield
Julian F. Dctmer
Mrs. Charles D. Dickey
Mrs. Walter Douglas
Mrs John W. Draper
Henry F. du Pont
Mrs. Moses W. Faitmite
Marshall Field
William B, O. Field
Mrs. Robert H. Fife
Mrs Henry J. Fisher
Harry Harkness Flagler
Mrs Murtimer J. Fox
Childs Frick
Rev. Robert I. Gannon, S. J.
Dr. H. A. Gleason
Mrs. Frederick A. Godlcy
Mrs. George McM. Godley
Prof. R. A. Harper
Mrs. William F. Hencken
Mrs. A. Barton Hepburn
Mrs. Elon H. Hooker
Mrs. Clement Houghton
Archer M. Huntington
Pierre Jay
Mrs. Walter Jennings
Mrs. Alfred C. Kay
Mrs. F. Leonard Kellogg
Mrs. Warren Kinney
H. R. Kunhardt. Jr.
Mrs. Barent Lefferts
Clarence McK. Lewis
Mrs. William A. Lockwood
Dr. D. T. MacDougal
Mrs. David Ives Mackie
Mrs. H. Edward Manville
Parker McCollester
Miss Mildred McCormick
Louis E. McFadden
Mrs. John R. McGinley
Dr. E. D. Merrill
John L. Merrill
Roswell Miller. Jr.
Mrs. Roswcll Miller, Jr.
Mrs. Roswcll Miller, Sr.
S. P. Miller
George M. Moffctt
H. de la Montagne
Col. Robert H. Montgomery
Mrs. Robert H. Montgomery
Harrington Moore
Mrs. William H. Moore
B. Y. Morrison
Mrs. Augustus G. Paine
Mrs. James R. Parsons
Rufus L. Patterson
Mrs. Wheeler H. Peckham
Mrs. George W. Perkins
Howard Phipps
Rutherford Piatt
H. Hobart Porter
Francis E. Powell, Jr.
Mrs. Harold I. Pratt
Mrs. Rodney Procter
Mrs. Henry St. C. Putnam
Stanley G. Ranger
Johnston L. Redmond
Ogden Mills Reid
Prof. Marcus M. Rhoades
Dr. William J. Robbins
Prof. A. Percy Saunders
Mrs. Melvin Sawin
John M. Schiff
Mrs. Henry F. Schwan
Mrs. Arthur Hoyt Scott
Mrs. Arthur H. Scribner
Mrs. Townsend Scudder
Mrs. Samuel Seabury
Mrs. Guthrie Shaw
Prof. Edmund W. Sinnott
Mrs. Samuel Sloan
Edgar B. Stern
Nathan Straus
Mrs. Theron G. Strong
Mrs. Arthur H. Sulzberger
Joseph R. Swan
Mrs. Joseph R. Swan
Prof. Sam F. Trelease
Mrs. Harold McL. Turner
Mrs. Antonie P. Voislawsky
Manfred Wall!
Allen Wardwell
Nelson M. Wells
Alain C. White
Mrs. Nelson B. Williams
Mrs. Percy H. Williams
John C. Wister
Richardson Wright